LANGUAGE, GESTURES AND RELATED SKILLS

1. How does imitation help in learning language?

Language is a multimodal process and hence can be picked up through imitation. Imitation helps a child in learning language as language can be seen (through lip reading) as well as heard. Language can also be learnt by touching the speaker's lips. 1

2. How do children learn new words?

Children memorize and learn words that are spoken over and over in front of them. . Words which are not familiar generally fade out of memory and as a result are not learnt. The child does not perceive the vocalization of words that he is not familiar with. Hence it is important to talk to the child as much as possible so that the child can learn new words. 1

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD expose children to a rich vocabulary of words. By listening to the same set of words repeatedly, children will be able to memorize them. Also, they will learn the use of these words in the appropriate context settings.

3. What is imitative language?

Children use imitative language until they develop verbal language. Imitative language does not serve any function once the child starts expressing himself verbally. 1

4. How is a written language learnt?

It is found that children create an internal mental configuration of the written characters. This mental configuration structure is based on the information presented to the child in the form of the pronunciation of the character, colors, etc. The arrangement of such a mental structure serves as the basis of gradually developing the information about the written language. These structures cannot be taught but would have to be gradually figured out by the child during the course of learning. 2

Note from Smart Neurons: In children who are at the age where they are learning written language, our Software CDs and DVD expose them to brief and easily readable words, sentences and questions. They will also be able to learn the pronunciation of the words. By using our products repeatedly, children will slowly begin to develop mental structures associated with the written language.

5. At what age is handedness established in children?

Studies indicate that handedness is established by 8 to 11 years of age. 3

6. What are the factors that determine manual preference of right or left handedness in children?

Prevalence of handedness varies according to age groups. Following are some factors that determine manual preference in children:

· Genetic factor

· Social factor

· Emphasis on Education 3

7. Is it true that people who are left handed are more intelligent and skilled?

No. Handedness does not affect intelligence or the ability to develop new skills. 3

8. Who among the two sexes has better manual skills?

Studies show that women have a strong lateralization of manual preference. For example, girls develop the skill of pencil manipulation earlier than boys. It is believed that women are better manually skilled than men. 3

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs encourage the hand and finger coordination as the children click on the mouse or maneuver the cursor on the screen to respond to questions. This will generally improve the object manipulation skills in children.

9. When does holophrase develop in a child?

Holophrase or one-word sentence appears at around 18-months of age. 7

10. At what age does a child start using recognizable phonemes?

A child starts using recognizable phonemes at the age of 12- months: 7

11. What is ‘symbolic' communication?

The term symbolic communication refers to the process of communicating ideas with the help of symbols. It can involve linguistic, mathematical, or other symbol systems. The goal is to share feelings, ideas and concepts through symbols.8

12. What are the components of language?

Language is a complex system and has various simpler components. The key components of language are syntax, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. 8

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD lay the foundation for the child to learn language which is a very complex system. Our products expose children specifically to the syntax, phonology and semantics aspects of language

13. Do children have in-built ability to learn language skills?

Children have in-built abilities for developing communication skills. They have an inherent knowledge of universally used communication basics. Besides this, children also possess learning abilities to master language-related skills. 9

14. What is the critical period of brain development with regards to language?

The first three years of life are regarded as the critical period for brain development. In this period, it is crucial that a child be exposed to different languages if possible in order to facilitate strong brain development. Parents and care-givers are encouraged to speak to the child as often as possible. This way, the child is exposed to the various nuances of languages. 29

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD can be used by parents and caregivers to interact with the children. By talking about the stories in the computer games or even by imitating the narrator, parents can help preschool children develop a strong foundation for language skills.

15. How can we help a child learn language?

Although language comes naturally to a child, its proper form and type must be taught in order to see an early and correct development of the language skills . Language learning should invariably start with symbolic communication. Symbolic communication means understanding others or expressing oneself with symbols, whether that involves communicating linguistically, mathematically, or through another symbol system expressed in speech, gesture, notations, or through some other means. 8

16. Do children have an understanding of comparison?

Children do possess the skill of comparing things. Thus, analogy and comparison are two important skills that must be taught to young children. This enables them to differentiate things and helps them develop critical thinking. One way in which children can improve their ability to detect powerful analogical matches is through comparison . 8

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products (especially our Software CD) help teach children critical thinking and the ability to make decisions based on comparisons and analogies presented as part of a varied and rich scenario. This allows them to ‘detect’ matches in semantic structures and then base their decisions on these findings.

17. Why do high-ability people have good argumentation skills?

High ability individuals have good argumentation skills or good informal reasoning skills. This is so because they have a higher level of verbal skills and good command over language structures that are an important part of argumentation. They can carry out a more controlled search of information and analyze the results. This provides them with good reasoning capabilities. These people can provide more logical explanations for the claim under argument. 23

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD lay the foundation for strong verbal skills and help children gain command over language structures.

18. What is the two-component model of informal reasoning?

Informal reasoning is said to have two components- namely skill and knowledge. 23

· Informal reasoning skill refers to the ability to produce and evaluate evidence for and against an argument. This also includes the efficient use of qualifiers, Meta statements and notions against the argument.

· Knowledge is the result of awareness of subject matter and knowledge from personal experience. These two components are an integral part of informal reasoning.

19. What are the skills required for informal reasoning?

Informal reasoning skills are acquired and not taught. They include knowledge of language structures and the ability to store information on the elements of these structures One advantage of these structures is that they make the retrieval of information easy and also help in the logical analysis of it. High performers with high ability levels acquire the skill through reading and listening as verbal procedures. 23

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD help children develop strong informal reasoning skills since our products emphasize the different language structures and allow a child to explore the results of the decisions the child makes.

20. What are ‘situation models'? Do high-ability individuals differ from others in developing situation models?

Situation models are very important in the process of analyzing and solving a problem. High-ability individuals tend to construct strong and well-developed situation models owing to their good reasoning skills. The average and low performers lack the ability to form strong situation models and are more text-based. 23

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD provide a wide variety of rich and complex situation models. Children are constantly exposed to various changing scenario and they are required to develop their decision-making process in this visually and contextually rich environment.

21. How can informal reasoning skills be improved in low-ability students?

To improve skills in informal reasoning, the curriculum should provide instructions in argumentation. The instructions should be in the framework of specific subjects. These skills should be incorporated at an early age so that children receive reinforcement from time to time. 23

22. What are the hierarchical phases of skill learning?

There are three phases of skill learning . These are:

· Cognitive phase

· Associative phase

· Autonomic phase

23. What is cognitive phase of skill learning?

Cognitive phase is the first phase of skill learning. In this phase, the individual selects the topic on his own discretion and reviews it to prepare a storehouse of information. This information is raw and is stored as isolated pieces within the brain. 25

24. What happens in the associative phase of skill learning?

The associative phase of skill learning is characterized by the gradual transformation of stored information to procedural representation. This happens by inter-relating the isolated pieces of information - thus strengthening the presence of this information in memory 25

25. What are the characteristics of the autonomous phase ?

Autonomous phase is the third phase in skill learning. In this phase, the procedural representation of the skills no longer requires extraneous control or attentiveness by the performer. Instead, the skill becomes automatic. In other words, the skill is mastered and becomes an integral part. 25

26. Which skills are necessary for learning to read?

Oral- language skills such as awareness of and access to the sound structure of the language would be important for a child who is learning to read. Visual skills also seem to be relevant to reading because oral referents need to be mapped to printed ones. 2

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD introduce children to the ‘sound’ aspect as well as the structure of language. Also, visual skills are stressed throughout and children learn by making contextual associations between the spoken word and real world objects.

27. Is the ordering of words in a language important for comprehension?

Comprehension of a language requires both syntactic and semantic analyses. Syntactic analysis is specific to the language that is being read because each language has its own grammatical system. The order of words is the single most important syntactic device for sentence interpretation. Therefore understanding words in a sequence is integral to developing comprehension. 2

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products stress the importance of syntactic and semantic structures in the form of stories that children create using their decision-making process.

28. Should the teaching of spellings be stressed when teaching language comprehension?

Children create spellings based on their knowledge of language and print. It is suggested that spelling errors reveal how children acquire phonological and orthographic knowledge. It is found that constant spelling lessons have a positive effect on a child's comprehension of the language. 2

29. What is the importance of a proper script for developing reading skills?

Children accumulate information about the written script and create an internal mental structure. An improper script can generate wrong understanding patterns amongst children. 2

30. What is epilinguistic control ?

Epilinguistic control refers to the process that characterizes children's internal organization of knowledge; it is acquired in the initial phase of language development. It is non-expressive and manifests only in the child's actions. 2

31. How can a foreign language be taught?

For children, there must be a similarity between the spoken and the written language. They grasp similar patterns better. Therefore a foreign language must be taught in oral as well as in a script form to facilitate effective and faster learning. 2

32. What is meant by executive skills ?

Executive skills are defined as systems that have a hold over cognition. In a way, these systems are responsible for managing cognitive skills. It is proposed that impaired executive skills could lead to reading disabilities in children. 45

33. What is the function of executive skills?

Executive skills are an important part of goal-directed activities. These are sub-skills that are essential for being alert and attentive. Purposeful and goal-directed activity includes alertness and sustained attention in learning, ascertaining particular goals and generating plans to achieve the same. 45

34. What is pragmatic ability ?

Pragmatic ability refers to the ability to keep track of listeners' and speakers' viewpoints and purpose . This helps in developing the skill to use and construe language suitably in social situations. 8

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products require children to listen to instructions or questions and respond appropriately. The end result of this effort is a delightful story that the child helps create on their own. Also, these stories are situated in strong social contexts which will help children develop their social and pragmatic abilities.

35. Does command of the phonological and grammatical structure of one's native language change throughout the life span?

In fact, the command over phonological and grammatical structure of one's native language does not change after middle childhood. However, vocabulary and communicative skills change throughout the life. 8

36. What are inscriptions? How do they facilitate learning?

Inscriptions include drawings, diagrams, maps, physical models, read-outs of instruments, and mathematical expressions. Most teaching methods use a variety of inscriptions to help a student learn the different concepts. 8

37. Does symbolic communication have any role in cognitive development?

Yes, symbolic communication is essential for development of cognition. It influences cognition in the following ways 8

· Children first become aware of symbols.

· Children learn to distinguish between symbols and even use them in their communication

38. How can parents contribute to the development of pre-speech patterns (like smiling, gurgling, etc.) in their infant?

It is seen that infants whose parents talk to them from birth and communicate with them effectively, learn to develop pre-speech pattern early. These patterns include responding with attentive looks, gurgles, smiles and certain other responses in interaction with parental child-directed talk. 8

39. Is the preferred hand more skilled?

No, it is not necessary that the preferred hand is the most skilled hand. It depends upon the task being performed. 8

40. Is it true that boys have more tendencies to be mixed-handers as compared to girls?

Yes, ambidextrous tendencies are found more in boys when compared to girls. 8

41. When do children develop the ability to evaluate themselves?

The ability to evaluative oneself develops in toddlers between the ages of 2 and 3. 10

42. How does language help a child in improving behavior and emotional control?

It is seen that language helps children to improve their behavior and emotional control in the following ways 10 :

· It mediates between the intention or desire and the resulting behavior. Language can bring about verbal self control which can help curb impulsivity and behavior problems.

· Language serves to communicate one's internal feelings to others

· Language can help make the child aware of his own feelings.

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products strongly encourage the development of language skills in young children.

43. What are the key functions of language and communication in childhood?

In childhood, language and communication serve the following functions 10

· A child begins to use language when approaching others

· Language gives the capability to a child to discuss problems and take actions. It allows increases self-control in a child.

· Language can also enhance self-awareness in a child

44. Is spoken language a complex form of movements and gesturing?

Yes, spoken language seems to be a modified complex form of movements and gesturing. In a spoken language, words have to be formed, articulated and expressed. In bringing about these spoken words, a coordinated movement of the lips, larynx, lungs, and tongue are required. At the higher level, all these movements are controlled by the cerebellum and motor neo-cortex of the brain. 57

45. What is American Sign Language?

American Sign Language (ASL) is utilized by the deaf to communicate with others. It is a multifaceted language using gestures for communication. It consists of natural and artificial signs which are articulated into a grammatical gestural language. ASL is thus visual and verbal, but not auditory. 57

46. Are hand gestures related to spoken language?

Yes, research in this field has shown that spoken language, especially grammatical and syntactical components is directly related to handedness. It is seen that certain activities of the right hand are commanded by the linguistic impulses. Hand gestures seem to operate as a sort of motor extension of language. 57

47. What do you mean by linguistic thoughts?

Linguistic thoughts are a form of communication with the inner self. It is a structured chain of command or train of associations that are noiselessly heard or which emerge before an observer in the "mind's eye. 57

48. Do adults use ego-centric speech?

No, ego-centric speech is used by children and never seen in adults. 57

49. What is the meaning of ego-centric speech?

Ego-centric speech is a form of thinking in which the individual thinks out aloud and talks to oneself. Generally, it comprises of making remarks on and clarifying one's actions. Usually children exhibit this kind of thinking both when they are playing alone and when they are in groups. 57

50. Why are women more resistant to the effects of brain injuries and developmental disorders related to speech?

Women are found to be more resistant to effects of brain injuries and developmental disorders related to speech because their right cerebral hemisphere is structured more efficiently (especially with regard to social and emotional language functions). 57

51.Which part of the brain is associated with language output?

Broca's area of the left frontal lobe is associated with language output. 58

52. Do deaf children have normal language and cognitive development?

It is seen that deaf children communicating with their deaf parents through sign language are exposed to visuo-spatial language experience. Although these children are deprived of auditory experiences, they undergo a normal development of language and spatial cognitive functions. 58

53. What is like-me mechanism?

Like-me mechanism is a hypothesis that states that infants possess an inherent like-me mechanism which figures out equivalences between movements-as-felt and movements performed by others. This reinforces the theory of imitation in infants. 58

54. When does imitative language develop?

Imitation develops at the age of eighteen months of age in infants. 58

55. What are the characteristic features of imitation language?

Following are the characteristics of imitation language 58

· Develops when the child is eighteen months of age

· Evolves for the next two years

· Disappears once verbal language is learnt

· Progresses in multifaceted and coded combination of imitation and being imitated

56. Is early childhood experience of infant-caregiver relationship accessible?

No, the early experiences of child-caregiver relationship cannot be recalled. These experiences are stored in the amygdala portion of the brain and are stored before the development of language; hence, early childhood information cannot be recalled. 10

57. What is the significance of language in a child's emotional and behavioral control?

The child acquires emotional and behavioral control through language in the following ways 10 :

· Language sets a balance between intention (or desire) and behavioral action

· It helps to communicate one's internal state to others

· Language helps the child to become intentionally aware of how he or she is feeling

58. What is meant by epilinguistic control?

The process that describes children's internal organization of knowledge is called epilinguistic control. It is developed in the initial phase of language development. Organization of epilinguistic control is unconscious and becomes apparent only in children's actions. 2

59. What is meant by metalinguistic control?

Metalinguistic control is a process by which children become conscious of and implement intended control over the many aspects of language. 2

60. What features of verbal language are based on attributes of the imitative language?

The features of verbal language that are based on some of the attributes of imitative language are 1 :

· Taking turns

· Sharing topics

· Understanding the other person's intentions

· Negotiating shared goals through codes and routines

61. How is spoken language based on movements and gestures?

Spoken language is an interplay of movements and gestures. The process of speaking is a complex phenomenon. According to the intricate programming of the cerebellum and the motor neocortex of the brain, a coordinated movement of the lips, larynx, lungs, and tongue occurs. This joint effort results in formation, articulation and expression of the idea as spoken language. 57

62. What is the importance of reading to children?

Reading to children is one of the best ways to model literacy skills. In addition to engendering a love of books, reading to children gives them a sense of what the reading process is all about, introduces them to the concept of written language, and familiarizes them with literacy conventions. Before children can learn to read, they must learn why people read and what people do when they read 37 .

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD read out engaging and fun stories that help build the foundation for literacy skills. Our products also introduce children to the written language by selectively exposing them to specific language structures.

IMPORTANCE OF PLAY

1. Does play help in developing motor skills?

Play is very essential in developing gross and fine motor skills as it involves lots of physical activity. Play also helps the children become aware of their body. As they enjoy the physical exercise, they also enhance their sense of self-confidence, self-esteem and security. 38

Note from Smart Neurons: We strongly encourage parents and caregivers to play with their child – and to expose children to interactive and playful activities. Playful activities that involve physical movements help build children with healthy bodies and healthy minds.

2. Does play have any influence on learning abilities?

Yes. Play has a direct effect on learning. It gives a wider scope of experience and a larger platform to practice the skills and master it. Play increases intuitiveness and presents a wider exposure to learning opportunities. 11

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products introduce children to playful computer games that are simple yet require abilities like comprehension, decision-making and simple motor skills to reach the end goal.

3. Are play and higher mental functions related?

Higher mental functions like language, memory, thinking, attention, abstraction and perception are self-generated activities and require thought process. In children, play serves as an exercise for the brain to sharpen the thought processes that provide the building blocks for developing higher mental functions. Play also helps in building creativity and problem solving skills in children. 11

4. Play can improve children's vocabulary abilities. Is this correct?

Yes, children who are involved in thematic pretend and socio-dramatic play have better communication skills. During play, children learn new ways to communicate, add to their vocabulary and put their thought processes to work. Play stimulates them to think, analyze and create new ideas. 11

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products expose children to a varied array of socio-dramatic plays. They are constantly encouraged to think and analyze the situations that are presented to them.

5. How do toys help in learning and development in babies?

Toys are not only a source of entertainment for babies but also are effective medium for learning. When a baby tries to grab a toy, he is in fact learning eye to hand co-ordination. With the hand trying to grab the object, his senses become aware of the body parts and its movements. The baby becomes aware of the actions and the effect produced by it. Toys are also a source of generating curiosity in babies. 6

6. Should a child be allowed to play with children who vary in ages or are of the opposite sex?

Generally, children prefer playmates of the same sex and of a similar age group. To gain a better understanding of others' needs and also to become exposed to different patterns of thinking, it would be best if children would also mingle with children who are either younger or older. This way, a child gains knowledge about different aspects of life and learns to fit in better within the society. 41

7. How do children develop social skills through play?

Play promotes development of social skills in children. They learn to handle their emotions and practice self control. Play is a group activity that gives them a platform to share power, space, and ideas with others. It makes them aware of what others want and expect. They also learn to accept other children's behavior and perspective. 38

8. How does play contribute to children's learning and development?

Play is an active form of learning wherein children can explore their own knowledge, activity and observations. It has a strong emotional connection and hence stimulates neuronal expansion. Because of this reason, the information acquired through play is long lasting. Children find the play an interesting and relevant activity that is appropriate to their expectations and success. They can learn a variety of skills, ideas and concepts in a very non-conventional but interesting way. 38

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products use play to create an active platform of learning wherein children can explore different social contexts and arrive at their own observations.

9. What are the strategies employed to solve a simple arithmetic problem?

Following are the methods, students use to solve a simple arithmetic problem 7 :

· Sum strategy- this involves the process starting from one and moving forward

· Minimum strategy- this involves counting form the larger addend

· Decomposition- solving the problem by dividing it into two or more simpler problems

10. Can Play help a child to overcome traumatic events?

Play has a direct effect on a child's thought processes . Play helps children to get rid of negative feelings caused by traumatic events and substitutes them with more positive ones. It also allows children to practice, elaborate on, and perfect their skills as they do the activity in an enjoyable mood. By exercising their minds through different play behaviors, children become capable of using high-level mental functions. Task-oriented games can also teach problem-solving skills to children. 11

11. Can communication be taught through play?

Children involved in group-play show greater communicative skills. They learn how to share objects with others, put their demands forward, etc. It also helps in language development and vocabulary abilities. 11

AGE OF CHILD AND EFFECT ON LEARNING

1. Which age period is important in learning new information and building new skills?

Research shows that the period between 1 to 3 years of age is critical for children in learning new information and building new skills. 5

2. Is brain development limited to early years of our life?

No - brain development is not limited to early years but is a life-long process that is regulated by the processes of thinking, feeling and adapting. 15

3. Does there exist a basic factual science that propels a child's development?

Learning experiences shape the development of the brain from birth through adulthood. Several thousand genes are present in the body, and they guide the development of the nervous system. This also points out to the inheritance of intelligence. The heritability of IQ goes up with age, accounting for 75% of the variance by late adolescence. There are neurons that grow with development and respond to the external environment by forming synapses. 44

4. Why is it important to help children develop sub-skills ?

Sub skills are necessary for purposeful and goal-directed activity . They include:

Focused and sustained attention, specific goal selection, generation and implementation of plans and strategies for the attainment of these goals, as well as monitoring and utilization of feedback. 45

5. How does learning progress?

Learning is a process that goes on in discreet chunks. This means that it is a step-by-step process. Trying to make a child learn several things at a time could lead to confusion. Instead, helping him learn a simple thing as a group of many whole experiences can have the desired effect. 25

6. How can skills related to reasoning be developed in a child?

Reasoning skills are best acquired by reading and listening. So a growing child must be put in the habit of reading and listening to speeches as much as possible. 47

Note from Smart Neurons: By using our products, children are exposed to listening to different sentence structures, questions and to fully-developed stories. They are also required to respond to questions – and each answer will shape the end result differently. This can greatly help in developing reasoning skills in the child.

7. What factors hamper the positive development of a child?

Children must be shielded from arrogance, biases, hatred, cheating etc. During the child's growing years, these negative emotions can seriously impede a positive development in the child. 26

 

MUSIC, DRAMA, DANCE

1. Can drama be used as a teaching tool in language development?

Yes, drama and pretend-play serve as excellent teaching tools for development of complex concepts in language. They can help students understand the conceptual and intangible elements that are an important aspect of literacy development. Also, the students learn as a group and they also learn to cooperate with each other and work more effectively. 13

Note from Smart Neurons: Participating in drama, schools plays, etc. has found to help the overall social development of the child. It is encouraging to know that many schools are now strongly promoting children’s participation in drama, plays etc. either as part of the regular curriculum or as after-school program.

2. Does music have any effect on brain development?

Yes, music has a direct and positive impact on the development of brain and cognitive abilities. Exposure to music education stimulates the process of neuronal connections in brain known as synapses. It also improves branching of the neuronal ends. This is very important for higher brain functions. 32

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products use very lively and engaging music that have been found to have a soothing and calming effect on the children. This helps children calm down and keep their brains at the right level of excitement so that it is conducive to learning.

3. What are the brain functions that are affected by music education?

Mostly the higher mental functions are affected by training in music. Some of these are math, language and spatial reasoning. 32

4. Can music enhance academic skills?

Music is found to improve educational abilities in children. It is seen that slow music brings about cortical and limbic attentiveness. On the other hand, fast notes improve moods. On the whole, music refreshes the mind and prepares it to process new information. 40

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD expose children to very lively and engaging music that are based on Mozart and Beethoven. These pieces have been especially chosen given the calming and refreshing effect they have on children’s brains.

5. What are the brain functions that are affected by music education?

Mostly the higher mental functions are affected by training in music. Some of these are math, language and spatial reasoning. 32

6. How does musical training help in cognitive development?

The latest neurological research on brain development and its relationship to music education reveals that training in music has a positive effect on cognitive development. The musical nourishment and enrichment of young children stimulates the formation of connections (synapses) and the growth of branching extensions (dendrites) in the brain. Training in music at an early age exercises higher brain functions, including complex reasoning tasks. Musical skills also help children develop in other areas, such as math, language, and spatial reasoning .32

7. Is dance a language?

Yes, the brain perceives dance as a language of motion and movements. 57

8. Which part of the brain processes music?

The right hemisphere and the limbic system are involved in processing music. 57

9. How can music be effectively used in a classroom setting?

Research on music and learning has shown that music that plays at or near 60 beats per minute improves learning and memory, actually slowing down brain waves and increasing optimum functioning.

EFFECT OF COMPUTERS ON LEARNING

1. Computers have invaded every field of life. Is the home computer a helpful learning tool?

Computer stimulates and sharpens the visual senses and is found to help develop the visual intelligence. The image representation in computers strengthens various aspects of visual intelligence including visual attention, space awareness and image distinction. To sum up, computers can be efficient teaching tools that enhance academic performance. 14

2. Can computer games help build intelligence?

Often, computer games have a variety of activities happening at the same time, and each of the activities require attention and evaluation. The varied visual experience of computer games can explore most aspects of visual intelligence while improving non-verbal acumen. 14

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs do have enough activities happening on the screen so that they can all be processed easily by a young child. The rich animation and lively social settings provide varied visual experience which helps build non-verbal intelligence.

3. Can computers be used in classroom teaching?

Yes, computers can become an indispensable part of classroom learning. The computer technology in classroom is more interactive and attractive so that it keeps the students engaged in learning. It helps develop higher mental functions and assists in education. 18

4. What are the factors required for effective learning?

The basic factors essential for learning to be effective are as follows 16 :

· Active engagement

· Participation in groups

· Frequent interaction and feedback

· Connections to real-world contexts

5. Are there any changes required in the present education system for incorporating computer technology as an effective teaching tool?

Yes, there are few changes required in the present education system in order to incorporate computers as leaning tool. Some of these areas are 16 :

· Teacher training on using computers

· Curriculum that utilizes the computer

· Student assessment using computers

· A school's capacity for change

6. What effect can feedback have on learning?

Feedback is very important in learning. It is found that learning is more rapid and effective when ideas can be applied and timely feedback is given. The feedback given decides the operationability of the idea and encourages learning of the idea. Feedback also gives a direction to learning. 16

7. Can computer feedback accelerate the learning process?

Computers can improve interaction with the learner. Computers can be applied to asses and evaluate students and also provide timely feedback to accelerate learning process. 16

8. How does computer connect the classroom subject matter to the real world?

Using computers, students can actually apply classroom teaching to real world situations. This increases retention of the content. The computers also help apply the ideas in different contexts that give a wider scope for understanding the concept. 16

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CD uses ‘rich’ real-world situations as the basis for the computer game. Children learn about real-world situations like the forest, farm, school, etc. through our software CD and this helps them build contextual information pertaining to these real-world situations.

9. Are computer action games beneficial in any way?

Consider popular action games with their rapid movement, imagery, and intense interaction, plus various activities occurring simultaneously at different locations on the screen. Studies indicate that children who play such games can improve their visual intelligence skills. Such skills may be especially useful in the fields of science and technology, where proficiency in manipulating images on a screen is becoming increasingly important. 14

10. What are benefits of using computer technology in children's education?

Computer technology has been demonstrated to enhance classroom instruction by making learning more engaging, and by providing new ways of teaching complex concepts and critical thinking. The use of technology that incorporates visual and collaborative teaching practices has helped promote learning amongst students of all ability levels, especially those with mild learning disorders 18 .

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD lay the foundation for critical thinking and help promote learning amongst children of all ability levels.

11. What are the potential dangers associated with computer technology?

Some critics feel that computer technology encourages asocial and addictive behavior and taps very little of the social basis of learning. 16

Note from Smart Neurons: We strongly encourage parents to spend as much time with their children by playing with and reading to them. Although our products expose children to rich social scenario, nothing can replace the benefits gained from real-life interactions with other children in playful settings.

GIFTEDNESS

1. What is giftedness?

Giftedness is the inborn tendency to exhibit certain qualities that otherwise would require some kind of formal training. Research proves that there are certain preconditions that lead to development of such inborn abilities. 17

2. Do Favorable circumstances lead to development of artistic skills??

No, the statement is not correct. Some studies show that artistic ability develop in favorable conditions but most of the studies indicate that artistic skills do not develop in favorable conditions but rather they develop by overcoming the circumstances that are against it. 4

3. What are the factors affecting giftedness?

Giftedness was once thought to be a gift that one was born with and which could not be acquired either through study or practice. However, some studies indicate that there are other factors that can affect giftedness. Following are some factors that influence the development and expression of giftedness:

· Innate strengths and weakness – once aware of their strengths and weaknesses, one can influence circumstances so that one is playing from a position of strength most of the time

· Social factors – this pertains to the importance one's society places on giftedness

· Historical background

· Cultural practices – these may encourage or undermine the expression of giftedness

· Socially accepted performances 4

4. How are culture and talent related?

Talent is a special skill or ability that usually develops in the confinement of cultural boundaries. If a talent is not culturally accepted, it is not accepted and supported within the society. As a result, it may not get the attention that it deserves. On the other hand, if a talent is accepted by the society, it holds significance and gains recognition. This will encourage gifted people to demonstrate their talents. 4

5. What are the qualities of a creative person?

Degrees of creativity are often measured by the extent and quality of innovation. Highly creative people often demonstrate the following characteristics:

· Individuality

· Highly personalized pursuit of interests

· Preference for complexity of problems

· Preference for theoretical aspect of problems

· Preference for aesthetic aspects of problems 4

6. How is the development of skills in gifted children different from that in normal children?

The different stages of development of other skills often remain the same for both groups of children but the gifted children start developing certain specific artistic skills much ahead of their peers. Gifted children demonstrate accelerated development of artistic skills when compared to their peers. They are often many years ahead of the other children when it comes to their artistic skill training. However, this accelerated development leads to the much mastered talents. 4

7. Is giftedness confined to a specific field?

No, giftedness is not specific to a single field or subject. Giftedness can manifest itself in any field like language, music, logic, mathematics, visual-spatial intelligence, dance and other artistic expressions of the body and including intrapersonal and interpersonal connecting. 4

8. Do gifted children have early brain development?

Yes, brain development in gifted children may begin before the time frame of 1-3 years. Hence the environment has to be modified accordingly to support this. 5

9. What are the potential fields for giftedness?

The potential fields of giftedness are as follows 4 :

· Language

· Music

· Logic/mathematics

· Visuo-spatial relating

· Bodily/kinesthetic applications

· Intrapersonal and interpersonal connecting

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD emphasize building skills in Language, Music, Logic, Visuo-spatial abilities and social skill development. Our future products will also target mathematics.

LEARNING AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

1. What type of environment supports effective learning in children?

Research studies show that environment should be conducive to learning. Children should have easy accessibility to books as well as to computer-aided (quality) information. It is also suggested to have an informative audio-visual collection. However, the most important thing is that adults should be available to guide and encourage children and help them get access to the required information. 5

2. How can a brain be stimulated?

Our brain is a marvelous organ that has the ability to react lifelong to the changing environment. It loves challenges and problem solving that serves as mental exercises for the brain. If a task has to be mastered, constant motivation is required. Tasks that are assigned should be one level more difficult than what the child can perform. The brain takes this up as a challenge and gets stimulated. Over a period of time, the task is mastered to perfection. 5

3. What techniques could be applied to help students assimilate information effectively?

Integration of learned information is necessary for effective learning. Following are some of the techniques that can be used to consolidate information-

· Observations made in a Field Trip

· Discussions with other children or parents

· Classroom demonstrations

· Thought-evoking Discussions

· Practical projects 6

4. What are the three basic units of brain involved in cognition?

Research shows that there are three units in the brain that are involved in the process of cognition. These are:

· The arousal and attention unit- This part of the brain is for concentration, the state of waking and the readiness to perception.

· The sensory input and integration unit- This part of the brain is involved in the act of receiving, analyzing, and storing information

· The executive planning and organization unit- This unit is responsible for planning the activities ad executing the same. 22

5. Why should we keep the nerve cells in good working condition?

We are born with a fixed set of nerve cells. It remains constant throughout our life because we do not grow any more new cells. The nerve cells needs to be kept healthy in order to prevent their loss. Constant stimulation should be provided to the nerves in terms of learning so that the brain cells remain active and healthy. The nerves tend to be inactive if not used. 27

6. How does one acquire the skill of informal reasoning?

Informal reasoning cannot be taught but has to be acquired through daily experiences, reading and listening to others. High performers who are adept at learning new things show a higher degree of informal reasoning than others. However, the skill of informal reasoning can be acquired by exposing oneself to education training that will provide the tools to acquire a higher degree of reasoning in any given field. 23

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD expose children to a variety of situations that help them develop informal reasoning and arrive at conclusions.

7. How does scaffolding help in learning?

Scaffolding is a teaching tactic that believes in giving the right kind of support at right level to promote students’ success and a higher level of understanding. Education strategies like instruction, modeling, questioning and feedback are used with gradual withdrawal of adult support to make the student confident and achieve the required learning outcomes. 24

8. What is reflection in terms of learning?

Reflection is a powerful learning tool that a learner uses to analyze one’s performance on the task at hand. Reflection can also help the student establish what he might do better the next time. It helps to retain acquired learning. Students can use this method to reinforce and improve learning by comparing their performance to the performance of experts and other learners. 24

9. A positive outlook is important in learning. How does play help children develop a positive attitude?

Research has proven that children learn better when they have positive feelings. On the other hand, learning is poor in a negative environment. Play serves an important medium to vent out negative feelings and related frustration. It also helps to ease out memories of traumatic events. Hence children who play tend to be free from such negative feelings and have more learning capacity. 11

10. Apart from experiences, what are the other factors that influence learning in children?

Various environmental factors influence learning in children. Some of these are:

· Nutrition

· Drugs

· Viral infection

· Toxins in the environment

· Temperature 5

11. What type of curriculum augments brain development and learning?

There are no specific curricula for enhancing learning but it is seen that curriculum that involves a combination of cognitive, social, emotional, aesthetic and physical activity contributes to learning. A curriculum should provide challenges that are one level higher in difficulty and hence gives scope for learning venture. An environment that is safe, secure, supportive and warm is also conducive to learning and helps with brain development. 29

12. Are uniform teaching technologies helpful in learning?

For majority of the students, uniform teaching practices are not very helpful. The reason behind this fact is that all brains are structurally different and so are the cognitive abilities. Each student has a different learning style and if the teacher conforms to that style, then learning becomes more effective. Individual centered practices, rather than uniform teaching methods are more important in learning. 32

13. Is it true that all students in a cultural group have the same learning style?

No, the learning abilities differ even within a cultural group. As the learning styles do not depend on the cultural background, theories on them cannot be generalized. 32

14. What are the physiological functions that influence learning?

Physiological functions like stress management, nutrition, exercise and maturation affect learning capabilities in children. 32

15. What are the characteristics of a good learning environment?

A good learning environment improves memory and learning. It should provide meaningful challenges with a safe risk. A learning environment that values emotion, self esteem and need for social interaction tends to promote learning. Classroom learning should incorporate activities that help develop skills like social and emotional skill building, group problem solving, and team building. More innovative teaching techniques should be used rather than the classical classroom teaching. The students should be given the freedom to express their emotions and feelings. 32

16. What are the various modes of teaching other than classroom teaching?

Apart from classroom lecture, there are other modes of teaching. They are simulations, role-playing, field trips, dance, art, and music. 32

17. What can the teachers do to make learning more interesting and retainable?

The quality of learning depends wholly on the teacher. Teachers can make learning more fun through their enthusiasm and by being a role model to the children. The classroom environment should be one of shared goals and mutual respect. Teachers can replace the lecture-method with stories, metaphors and complex themes. For acquiring these skills, teachers must have a strong knowledge base. They also need to understand the complexity of learning and teaching phenomenon. 32

18. Enlist the methods of ‘smart learning’.

The methods of smart learning are tips to improve learning in students34. They are:

· Think smart

· Sleep smart

· Eat and Drink smart

19. What are the techniques to prepare a learner?

There are six ways to prime a student for learning34. These are:

· Advise students to strengthen their existing learning style and gradually try other techniques also.

· Encourage them to think smart, i.e. the skill of goal setting that is important for all achievements.

· The students should have adequate sleep to refresh their brains.

· Adequate and correct nutrition also enhance learning.

· Dehydration leads to poor learning, so students must be encouraged to drink lots of water.

20. How do you create a positive environment for learning?

A positive learning environment has a lot of influence on learning. A teacher should try to keep the classroom atmosphere as positive and lively as possible. Active mode of learning is the best learning method. The physical and visual aspects of the room should be taken care of. There should be no auditory distractions. Use positive visual reminders if necessary. Music should be played in free time when classroom sessions are not in progress as it relaxes the mind and strengthens memory. 34

21. What are the ways to keep students attentive in class?

A teacher should know that learning happens best in a relaxed environment. Jokes and appropriate humor can make learning lively. Provide opportunities for movements that tend to increase blood and oxygen to the cells and improve attention. The concepts being taught should be related to real life situations or have strong emotional connections. All of these methods help teachers sustain the attention of the learners. 34

22. Is it harmful to incorporate academic concepts to the preschool curriculum?

No, academic concepts are not harmful to the preschoolers educational development provided this does not involve any formal instructional program. On the contrary, academic concepts can promote learning in preschool children if amalgamated with informal play settings. 37

23. What is the role of reading in childhood education?

Studies indicate that reading to children is the foundation stone for the development of other literacy skills. When an adult reads to a child, it makes the child acquainted to the process of reading and makes him aware of the written language. The child develops an idea as to what it is to be read to. Reading to children extends literacy learning. 37

24. Are reading aloud and talking about stories helpful in literacy development?

Reading aloud and talking about stories help develop a healthy attitude towards literature and encourage the child to continue learning. It strengthens the vocabulary skills of the children. This is because children tend to speak through their ideas, emotions, understandings and reactions. Therefore response to a story is an efficient method for literacy development. 39

25. How can a teacher help in literacy development through story telling?

A teacher can use story-telling and elicit responses to stories to assist literacy development in children. However, the teacher must acts as a good moderator in this kind of learning to keep the students stick to the subject. In other words, the teacher must keep the discussion goal oriented. The teacher must utilize this opportunity to enrich the students’ knowledge about literature. 39

26. What should a teacher do if the students’ state is not suitable to learning?

A teacher should know that learning takes place if the students are in an upbeat state of mind. If their state of mind does not allow active learning, the teacher should divert them to some activities that are relaxing. This may include stretching, exercising or a simple conversation. Even music can be used to bring the students to an equalized state of mind. 40

27. How can you enrich the learning environment?

There are three characteristic features of a good learning environment- challenge, novelty and feedback. Appropriate amount of mental challenges is a motivating factor. Challenges that are too tough makes the students give up early. On the other hand, challenges that are too easy are very boring. New challenges of appropriate difficulty level serve as the best stimulants for learning. Immediate feedback is also necessary to evaluate learning. Timely feedback can decrease stress level in students and increase coping abilities.40

28. Do males and females develop sex-dimorphic behavior with respect to specialized visual biases?

Yes, both the sexes have developed specialized visual biases. Men are fascinated with motion. Their visual system is more adaptive to spatial tracking of objects. This is seen in their preference of cars, planes and other moving objects. 41

29. Do punishment-based approaches help in learning?

Punishment-based approaches have a negative effect on learning and inhibit motivation. 12

30. What type of curriculum augments brain development and learning?

There are no specific curricula for enhancing learning but it is seen that curriculum that involves a combination of cognitive, social, emotional, aesthetic and physical activity contributes to learning. The curriculum should provide challenges that are one level higher in difficulty thereby creating opportunities for learning. Also, it is important that the child be in an environment that is safe, secure, supportive and warm since it is conducive to learning and brain development. 29

31. What are the factors involved in brain-smart teaching?

Following are the factors that constitute brain smart teaching:

L- Love that builds relationships

E- Enjoyment and fun while engaged

A- Autonomy and choice

R- Relevance including worthwhile, valued activities

N -Needs-driven activities that respect uniqueness

S -Safety, both emotional and physical that assures absence of threat.40

32. Do males develop sex-dimorphic behavior with respect to specialized visual biases?

Yes, both the sexes have developed specialized visual biases. Male children are fascinated with motion. Their visual system is more adaptive to spatial tracking of objects. This is seen in their preference of cars, planes and other moving objects. 41

33. Do punishment-based approaches help in learning?

Punishment based approaches have a negative effect on learning and inhibit motivation. 12

34. What are the strategies employed to solve a simple arithmetic problem?

Following are the methods that most students use to solve a simple arithmetic problem 7:

Sum strategy- this involves the process starting from one and counting up
Minimum strategy- this involves counting from the larger addend
Decomposition- solving the problem by dividing it into two or more simpler problems

35. What effect could discriminative teaching have on children?

This way of teaching helps to culminate amongst children the sense of good and bad and helps develop the idea of responsibility toward things. Also, helping students demonstrate responsible behavior during cooperative learning activities allows them to work together more effectively. 13

36. Can crafts work help in learning?

To help children in developmental psychology, we must integrate various theories and increase awareness of children's developmental needs. Classroom demonstrations, discussions, and practical projects enhance both student interest and help them retain knowledge. A positive and practical way of achieving this is to allow children to involve themselves in crafts work where they can bring out their inner thoughts. 45

37. Should child’s activities be attended at all times?

Attending to the child’s activity is important in order to pick up those things in which a child is interested. Children try new motor acts and try to divert our attention until they develop strategies to get what they want at that moment. It may be that, in infants, developing a successful strategy is as equally important as achieving the goal. 27

38. How can children be encouraged to pursue a higher quality of living?

Making a child understand things like self-awareness and self-determination are major factors in helping him obtain a quality life in the future. An important educational function thus is to help children understand their strengths, challenges, learning styles, and interests. 12

39. Writing is a tool. How is it helpful in the development of a child?

Writing affects the way children think about language. It brings words into consciousness and helps children to depict their thoughts. Thus, making a child write can also help parents understand their children better. 47

40. What are emergent learning conditions?

Emergent learning conditions are methods that encourage extensive experience with the fundamental units and procedures of the symbol system in practical problem-solving situations. These situations usually allow principles to emerge via multiple concrete examples. With this approach, students "discover" regularities and functional solutions rather than being taught as per rules 48

41. What is the most important difference between American and Asian educational systems?

In the United States, strong emphasis is placed on the importance of individual differences in ability among students. Asian cultures on the other hand tend to stress the similarities amongst students. Asians consistently rate the importance of innate ability lower than Americans do, and instead rate the importance of effort higher 50

42. How does the classroom discourse differ in between American and Japanese classrooms?

In Japanese classrooms the prevalent form of discourse is the discussion. In American classrooms on the other hand, it is the recitation technique: short questions and answers designed to lead the students through a planned path to understanding. Japanese teachers ask questions in order to induce thinking. They ask students to describe alternative solutions, explain them, and justify them in the face of questions from peers. American teachers ask questions in order to control the direction in which the lesson moves 50

43. How differently do Japanese teachers behave from their American counterparts?

In American classrooms the teacher is the authority, the arbiter of right and wrong. Japanese teachers are very reluctant to play this role. American teachers tend to quickly correct mistakes when they do occur, and almost never ask children who have incorrect answers to problems to display their solutions to the class. On the contrary, Japanese teachers see errors as a natural part of the learning process and as important sources of information about children's mathematical thinking. They believe that discussion of incorrect solutions can play an important role in children's developing conceptual understanding of mathematics 50

44. What are the educational implications of the double-activity hypothesis?

Double activity hypothesis has the following implications 25:

· The schools must adopt whole-experience learning rather than associative learning.

· The hierarchical structuring of present-day school curricula should be modified.

45. Why should the schools shift their focus from associative learning to whole experience schooling?

It is found that learning does not occur in chunks. It occurs in the context of already existing thematic ground. Hence information is imbibed as a contextual whole and not in pieces. Therefore schooling based on associative learning is believed to be a wrong practice by some researchers. 25

46. Should the hierarchical structuring of contemporary school curricula be changed?

According to the bio-functional model, the hierarchical structuring of school curricula is wrong. The curriculum has

· Separate introductory or discrete-part learning

· Intermediate or relation learning

· Advanced or skill integration and automatization

However, the bio-functional model proposes that learning in part is not stored and is forgotten because it does not have a ground to stand on. Hence learning is a whole experience and cannot be divided. Part learning can occur, but only on the ground of whole experience. 25

47. What do children first learn when they enter school?

They first start to learn how to read. Generally, new entrants in a school are fluent in their respective home language, so there is a mismatch between what they read and what they understand. Therefore, a good reading atmosphere must also be provided at home. 2

48. What extra-curricular activities should be incorporated in the curriculum to optimize learning?

Games, simulations, role-play, field trips, dance, art, and music should be incorporated into the curriculum to optimize learning. The financial support for these activities should come from the school community. 32

49. How do children learn from instructions?

Children tend to make a mental representation of the events in the lesson and they learn the content of the lesson based on this representation. 50

50. What are the factors that affect the student’s ability to make a mental representation of the lesson?

Following are some factors that affect the student’s ability to make a mental representation of the lesson 50:

· Characteristics of the learning session itself

· Purposes and expectation of the lesson

· Previous knowledge pertinent to the content of the lesson

51. What are the components of the basic processes involved in task performance?

The components of the process involved in cognitive task performance are as follows 24:

· cognitive analysis of situational signs

· potentials at the approaching, starting and performing phases

· emotional responses

· coping strategies

52. What are the different types of coping strategies used during a cognitive performance?

During a cognitive performance, the learner uses the following strategies 24:

· Task-oriented coping

· Ego-defensive type coping

· Social-dependence-type coping

53. What is task-oriented coping?

Task-oriented coping is manifested by exploring, recognizing and makeover of the task essentials, as well as orderly planning. Task-oriented coping helps a child to develop interest, enthusiasm and inquisitiveness. 24

54. What is eco-defensive type of coping?

Students with an inclination towards ego involvement and helplessness have a propensity of ego-defensive coping. When given a task, he considers the task to be difficult or himself to be not appropriate for the task. Also, he does not expect success but aims at decreasing tension. The emotions related to this are inhibitory in nature like fear of failure and anxiety. Poor sense of self-efficacy prevails and the student fails. The failure is often attributed to difficulty of the task or blaming oneself for the failure. 24

55. What is meant by social-dependence type coping?

This kind of coping strategy is seen in students who have a disposition towards seeking help or approval. When given the task, the student assesses the end solution and the possible sources of social supports. His expectation of success is high with no inhibitory emotions. But the success is not based on personal abilities but on teachers help and rewards. Concentration on getting teachers' advice for the next step hampers students from self-contained exploration, transformation of task elements, and systematic planning. 24

56. What type of teacher interaction occurs with a task-oriented student?

A task oriented student is considered as a good student by the teacher owing to his task-related keenness, determination, and self-regulation. Because the student exhibits persistent efforts in the face of obstacles and with minimal cueing, the teacher develops confidence in the student. Often teachers give direct criticism regarding the students' performance, because they know that it will not be taken as an insult but as a factual correction. Because the teachers share prospects pertaining to the ongoing growth of the student's self-contained functioning, they repeatedly use task approach demands and prompts for independent working. 24

57. What happens in a student teacher interaction with an ego-defensive student?

An ego-defensive student often deals with difficulties and demands of the teacher through avoidance or off-task behavior in order to relieve the associated tension. In response to this, the teacher tries to balance the situation by increasing task-approach demands or by giving up. 24

58. How does a teacher interact with a socially dependent student?

The qualified role of teachers as the one to guide, facilitate, and reward behaviors is re-enforced and utilized by the socially dependent students. When these students request assistance and social feedback, teachers of elementary classes are all too ready to help the student. 24

59. How does the quality of interaction affect the coping tendencies?

The quality of interaction and the coping tendencies are inter-related. Each leads to the other. If a socially dependent student continues to get the help he seeks, it reinforces his coping tendencies and he tends to use this approach more often. On the other hand, the socially dependent behavior tempts the teacher to help the student. 24

60. What are the strategies that affect the quality of learning outcomes?

Following strategies are proposed that may influence the learning outcomes 24:

· Activation of previous knowledge

· Inferences based on teacher's utterances

· Anticipation about teaching aims

· Construction of macrostructures

· Construction of the situation model

61. What is meant by activation of previous knowledge in classroom learning?

Activation of previous learning can serve as a powerful tool to relate classroom teaching with non-classroom teaching. It means recalling the knowledge gained in previous classroom teaching as well as knowledge gained through experience outside the classroom (that is, from day to day experience).. 24

62. What is school discourse?

The phenomenon which happens outside the schools and school texts is termed as school discourse. 24

63. Is it important for the student to know about the ‘teaching aims’?

Yes, if the students have a good understanding of the teaching aims, learning is much more goal directed. In teaching-learning exchanges, adequate understanding of short- and long-term teaching objectives is very essential.. 24

64. How do macrostructures help in learning?

The construction of macrostructures strengthens learning. This is the process whereby the student ties all the information presented to him and makes sense of it all.24

65. Is the construction of the situation model important in learning?

Construction of situation model is very important in learning as it is the link between classroom teaching and the experiences outside the school. It is in fact, a way to put theory into practice. A situation model represents the understanding of the real-world phenomena referred to in the texts. Most of the students do not create any pertinent situation model, but instead confine themselves to learning school knowledge. In this case, their knowledge becomes more bookish and lacks practicability. 24

66. Do motivational coping strategies affect comprehension?

Yes. Motivational and socio-emotional coping strategies have outstanding effects on comprehension. Motivation is a good tool that a teacher can use to facilitate effective comprehension.24

67. Which students are the most capable of school discourse and comprehension?

The students with task-oriented coping strategies have the capability to apply the lessons learnt at school. They are also efficient at developing situation models that are relevant outside the school. 24

MATHEMATICS

1. What are the benefits of emergent learning conditions?

Emergent learning conditions might facilitate second language and arithmetic learning. Second languages and mathematics, like first languages, are complex, formal symbol systems. Their instruction may benefit from attempts to duplicate implicit learning conditions in instruction 48.

2. What are the principles of ‘math math”?

The principles of ‘math math’ are:

· Encourage everyday problem finding.

· Introduce key mathematical structures as quickly as possible.

· Draw children's informal knowledge developed outside school, into the classroom.

· Use formal notations (identity sentences and equations) as a record for discussions and conclusions.

· Develop the child’s trust in his own knowledge.

· Talk about mathematics; don't just do arithmetic 49

3. What are the important findings of a study on ‘street math’ by Brazilian developmental psychologists?

Brazilian developmental psychologists made a distinction between mathematical performances "in the streets" and "in the school" in their study. They documented stunning, flexible computational skill by child street vendors who could not manage school arithmetic. In the Brazilian research, children and adults whose everyday work required mathematical performances of the kind just described, carried them out without errors. Yet many of the same individuals, when given written arithmetic problems in school form, with identical numbers in them, could not do the arithmetic at all. 49

4. How can we encourage everyday problem finding?

To encourage everyday problem finding is an important principle in teaching ‘math math’. Its main goal is to undo the disconnection between home or street learning and school learning, thereby bringing street math to school. By using problems that the children bring to school as the basis for a formal lesson, one should teach the children implicitly that what they do and think about at home is math. 49

5. What are the findings of recent studies on comparison between Japanese and American students?

Recent studies have demonstrated beyond doubt that Japanese students far outperform their American counterparts on tests of academic achievement, especially in the areas of mathematics and science. In one study of fifth-grade elementary school students, for example, the highest performing school in the U.S. sample scored less on a test of mathematics achievement than the lowest performing school in Japan. 50

6. What is the difference between American and Japanese lessons?

American lessons appear designed to produce a certain performance or problem solution, to teach students how to solve a particular class of mathematical problems. Japanese lessons, in contrast, appear to be aimed at facilitating thinking and sense making amongst the students. Lesson structure, classroom discourse, the role of the teacher, and the pace of instruction all differ markedly between Japanese and American lessons in ways that might lead Japanese and American students to process instruction in different ways 50

7. How can we make mathematical concepts meaningful to children?

One of the most common ways of ensuring that mathematical concepts will be meaningful to children is to embed the concepts in word problems. By being forced to apply the concepts to everyday problems, children gain an understanding of how mathematics is relevant to real-life situations 51

8. How do American students fare in mathematics when compared with students from other countries?

American children's understanding of mathematics remains amongst the worst of all the industrialized countries surveyed. In fact, the gap between what East Asian children and American children know about mathematics may be increasing. Secondly, the highest level of mathematical achievement that many American students ultimately reach is quite low 52

9. What changes during instruction (discourse) can be done to improve the performance of American students in mathematics?

The results of research carried out by Stigler, Fernandez and Resnick, suggest that the following instructional changes may improve mathematical achievement:

· structure lessons around quantitative problems embedded in meaningful context,

· have students attempt to solve these problems in collaborative groups,

· discuss as a class the various solutions derived by groups of students,

· encourage multiple answers and the view of mathematics as an open-ended problem solving activity, and

· use different materials and formats to represent each problem 52 10. What suggestions do Stevenson, Stigler and Fernandez make to improve the performance of American students in mathematics?

Stevenson and Stigler and Fernandez suggest alteration of the American educational system and cultural beliefs to resemble those of East Asia. These suggestions include increasing class sizes to allow teachers to spend more time preparing for lessons, providing children with more breaks during the school day, eliminating tracking, raising academic standards, and teaching children the importance of hard work in achieving goals 52

REASONING AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. What is meant by theory of mind?

Theory of mind is the realization of one’s own mind and its working abilities. In other words, it is the act of assigning a specific mental state to oneself and to others. It develops in the early phase of child development. 53

2. How can one determine the development level?

The developmental level can be ascertained by evaluating the type of cognitive functions that can be performed. The higher the complexity of the cognitive task carried out, the greater is the level of development in the child. These cognitive tasks can be related to vocabulary, phonological performance, etc. 53

3. What does informal reasoning mean?

Informal reasoning is the ability to analyze a given situation. In other words, if given a statement or conclusion, informal reasoning skills help to produce, as well as assess and evaluate the facts. It’s a mental function carried out in order to grasp the logic behind a claim. 23

4. In what situation is informal reasoning most active?

Studies reveal that in decision making, when in situations where the information is scarce, we tend to think more. Informal reasoning is also more active where the known statements are complex and open-ended. People use informal reasoning skills to debate a topic or a claim. 23

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD expose children to reasonably complex and open-ended situations just so that the children can develop their informal reasoning abilities. By evaluating the end result of their responses to these open-ended situations, children gain understanding of cause-and-effect.

5. What is an argument?

An argument is a discussion based on logical reasoning to support or reject a claim. It is a set of statements for and against a conclusion and is arrived at through logic. 23

6. How does one identify an argument?

An argument has certain elements constituting it. Not all discussions are arguments. There is a set of qualities that a discussion should qualify in order to be termed as an argument. Contradictions to the argumentative statement are an important element. That is, all arguments have some or the other counterarguments. In lengthy arguments, care should be taken that the discussion is going in a proper direction and that the facts are summarized time to time. For this purpose there are meta-statements that help to plan, direct and clarify facts in an argument. 23

7. How are informal arguments evaluated?

Informal arguments are assessed in terms of their reliability. 23

8. What are the criteria to judge a sound agreement?

Following are the criteria to judge the dependability of an argument 23

· Adequacy of the reason supporting the argument.

· Relevance of the reason that supports the conclusion.

· Contemplation of counterarguments.

· Content of the argument.

9. What are the characteristics of good argumentation?

Good argumentation is a skill. It should be based on good reasoning. The reasons supporting the argument should be adequate, relevant and sound. They should have been arrived at after considering all the counterarguments. The reasons against the notion must also be well researched and analyzed. 23

10. How can you evaluate informal reasoning in an argument?

In an argument informal reasoning can be evaluated by asking the following questions 23

· Does the individual state an argument?

· Does the argument have sound reason that supports the claim?

· What is the quality of a given reason?

· Are both for and against the notion aspects taken care of?

· Does the individual appropriately use qualifiers and Meta statements?

· How many acceptable reasons were stated in order to support a given claim?

11. What is meant by epistemology?

Epistemology refers to the study of knowledge that deals with the nature, source and extent of knowledge. 23

12. What are the types of epistemology in context with informal reasoning?

Informal reasoning encompasses two types of epistemology:

· Critical epistemology: People who are adept at reasoning and think analytically on both the sides of an argument use this technique.

· Make-sense epistemology- People who are not very skilled in reasoning use this technique. For them, the acceptability of the argument is based on their gut feeling. 23

13. How is informal reasoning related to ability level?

It is seen that argument structure is closely related to ability level. Higher the ability level more is the proportion of elaborate structure. It is also influenced by age. Older individuals or children have higher elaboration in their arguments, indicating deeper and sounder informal reasoning skills.23

14. What are the types of reasons?

Reasons are the logic behind a belief or action 23. They can be classified into the following:

· Abstract reasons: These are based on commonsense.

· Consequential reasons: These reasons state an end result as the product of a particular action.

· Rule-based reasons: Rule-based reasons are commonly accepted beliefs or sayings.

· Authority reasons: This type of reason states action as a result of appeal to an authority

· Personal reasons: These are based on personal experience.

· Vague reasons: These statements are usually ambiguous.

15. How is intelligence described?

Intelligence is the ability to use one's strengths and overcome one's limitations to solve problems and meet one's goals. As problems are resolved, we gain increased confidence to face future challenges. The best way to solve problems is to engage the logical brain and not reflexively react using our emotions. 54

16. What is The Zeigarnik effect?

By design, our brains find problem solving to be a rewarding activity. Once the brain locks on a problem, it is inclined to keep hunting for solutions. This innate desire to resolve problems is called the Zeigarnik effect and it motivates humans to find better coping strategies to deal with conflict situations 54

Note from Smart Neurons: Our future products intend to explore this aspect more and will introduce more problem-solving and mathematical concepts.

17. What are the universal growth needs according to recent research?

A mass of research suggests that four growth needs are universal in all children and across all cultures. According to the Circle of Courage model of Brendtro, Brokenleg, and Van Bockern, these involve:

· belonging,

· mastery,

· independence, and

· generosity.

In effect, these are the brain-based instructions in the human resilience code. Expressed in developmental terms, these are the processes of attachment, achievement, autonomy, and altruism 54.

18. What are the practical strategies one can teach youth so that they can disengage from destructive and conflicting thoughts?

The following strategies are very useful in disengaging from destructive conflict with an aggressive youth:

· Never take anger personally.

· Monitor and defuse own emotional arousal.

· Monitor and defuse agitation.

· Allow sufficient time for cooling down

· Foster a generous spirit 54.

19. How can one connect with a youth who is challenging authority of an adult?

One can successfully connect with the youth by using following simple strategies:

· Reach out to the guarded youth.

· Avoid a judgmental tone.

· Connect in times of conflict.

· Understand the overall behavior of the youth.

· Clarify challenging problems.

· Restore harmony and respect 54.

20. What are essential prerequisites for effective learning according to cognitive research?

Cognitive research has shown that learning is most effective when four fundamental characteristics are present:

· Active engagement,

· Participation in groups,

· Frequent interaction and feedback, and

· Connections to real-world contexts 16.

21. What are the flaws in the research cited by proponents of brain-based curricula?

Most of the brain research from which the proponents of "brain-based" curriculum appear to have drawn their claims is correlation. Another flaw in the reasoning of many "brain-based" curriculum proponents is that the research they cite has often been performed on adults, or on children who have some obvious or suspected disability. Even the landmark synapto-genesis work of Chugani and colleagues, which charted when various areas of the brain become activated over the first years of life, was performed with children suspected of having epilepsy 29.

22. Which strategies are significant in cognitive development in children?

Strategies for problem solving, decision-making, creative thinking, and meta-cognition are significant in enhancing cognitive development in children 32.

Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs encourage children to hone their decision-making skills and their ability for creative thinking.

23. Why should teaching strategies be tailored for each individual rather than being uniform?

Each student processes and absorbs new information in a different way. Identifying learning styles and teaching to those learning styles can increase academic achievement and improve attitudes towards learning. Some researchers maintain that uniform teaching practices will invariably deny many students success in the classroom. Hence, teachers should concentrate on learning-style strengths of each individual student32.

24. Which physiological functions affect the learning capacity of the brain?

Stress management, nutrition, exercise, and maturation are some of the physiological functions that affect the capacity to learn 32.

25. Is cognitive development quantitative?

Cognitive development is said to be quantitative because it is dependent on development of knowledge structures. It also depends on enhancement in the effectiveness with which processes can be performed.46

26. How can similarity comparisons improve children’s learning?

Children benefit from similarity comparisons as it lays a foundation for more abstract similarity. High-similarity examples encourage the child to be more imaginative. The fact that at least some of their associations may be obvious, leads to generation of more subtle correspondences. The process is intrinsically appealing to the children. Children play matching games for enjoyment. 8

BRAIN FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE

1. What is myelination and how does it affect learning?

Myelination is a process during which neurons and dendrites become coated with a fatty substance called myelin to enable neural impulses to travel faster. This property helps the information to travel faster, preventing false impulses and circuits. Overall, it increases the efficiency of the brain to comprehend and analyze the information faster. 5

2. Learning is affected by the development of brain connections during development. How do brain connections develop?

During the early years, brain synapses or connections proliferate. This may give rise to many unnecessary connections. Subsequently, whichever connections are highly used is retained while others are eliminated. This is called pruning. The number of connections that are retained is dictated by the day to day experiences of the child.15

3. How important are daily experiences for brain development?

Daily experiences help consolidate the developed brain connections. The type of brain connections consolidated depends upon the stimulation provided. More and varied the stimulations, the more connections are used and consolidated. 15

4. Give an example of the brain’s early blooming and pruning.

Language development in newborns indicates early blooming and pruning. Newborns can distinguish universal speech sounds, but as they grow up, their awareness becomes restricted to the language and sounds that they hear. The reason behind this is that as newborns, our brain connections are proliferated but slowly these connections are pruned with the language and audio stimulation we hear. 15

5. Does the brain develop in stages?

Yes, the development of brain varies according to the regions of the brain. The brain areas that control sensory experience such as sight, touch, hearing, and other sensations are stimulated by the early experiences of early years. As a result, these areas show maximum development during these years. The brain areas controlling the higher mental functions like thinking are stimulated at later years by ongoing experience. Therefore, these develop during the later years of life. 15

6. Does brain activity correspond with the developmental growth phase?

Yes, the brain activity has a direct correlation with the developmental growth phase. Studies reveal that the development of an infant’s brain is influenced by his sense of touch and bodily experiences. 30

7. Which part of the brain is involved in visual imagery?

The left hemisphere is involved in visual imagery. 31

8. What is the ‘modular structure’ of brain theory?

Some researchers believe that the brain is modular in structure. It is composed of various independent modular units working together to bring about a single act. No area is considered superior than any other, nor does it have a line of authority. All systems work in a coordinated manner for any given task. 33

9. What is the relation between brain plasticity and child development?

As development takes place, there is a huge input of information in an already molded brain. Plasticity of the brain allows it to gradually reshape itself according to the information being processed. This newly processed information is stored in very precise interrelated forms. Hence the brain plasticity allows it to keep pace with the child’s overall development. 7

10. What are the four constraints that infants are born with?

Following are the four inborn constraints in infants 9::

· Continuity- The infant presumes that objects move in connected paths and that these paths have continuity of motion.

· Solidity- Objects are solid and hence do not coincide. They move on unobstructed pathways.

· Gravity- Objects which are not supported tend to fall downwards.

· Inertia- The objects in motion do not change their speed abruptly.

11. Do ‘experiences of the body’ contribute to brain development?

Yes, the brain activity has a direct correlation with the developmental growth phase. Studies reveal that the development of an infant’s brain is influenced by his sense of touch and bodily experiences. 30

12. What are the major aspects of the bio-functional model of the brain?

According to the bio-functional model of the brain, the key components are 25

· Sources of control

· Relevant characteristics of brain hardware

· Bio-functional manifestations of brain characteristics

· Their fuzzy experiential manifestations and their transient organizational manifestations

13. What does the brain hardware consist of?

The brain hardware system consists of subsystems and micro-systems. The subsystems are indefinite in number and are self-directed units. These units are composed of micro-systems that are large in number and autonomous in function. 25

14. What is double-activity hypothesis of the brain?

According to the bio-functional model of the brain, the brain processes information in two modes or has a double activity system. All brain subsystems work in co-ordination, and this is a continuous process. The micro-systems, however, are engaged in brief electrical activity. This system of functioning is termed as double-activity of brain. 25

15. What is the result of double-activity system of the brain?

As a result of double activity of the brain, there are two kinds of knowledge bases created. 25 These are:

· Thematic knowledge

· Categorical knowledge

16. What is thematic knowledge?

Thematic knowledge is the outcome of information processed by the subsystems of the brain. The ongoing activities of the brain subsystems create a kind of holistic awareness that involves the whole system and is continuous. This kind of knowledge cannot be directly analyzed. 25

17. What is categorical knowledge?

The momentary constellation firing of a micro-system is responsible for categorical knowledge. The awareness created is more specified and structured. 25

18. What are the non-modifiable or cellular factors that determine the rate of brain development?

The factors that decide the rate of brain development are as follows5:

· Neural processes of gene induction

· Cell proliferation

· Migration and aggregation

· Differentiation

· Circuit formation

· Programmed cell death

· Synapse refinement

19. How does genetic programming contribute to the development of the brain after birth?

Genetic programming is closely related to the brain development in external environment. Genetics determine the kind of awareness a person experiences in relation to the external stimuli. It is responsible for the brain structure, which is different for each individual. 5

20. Do environmental factors affect the genetic predisposition in brain development?

Yes, environmental factors also affect the extent to which the genetic programming comes into play. 5 These factors are:

· Nutrition

· Drugs

· Viral infection

· Toxins

· Temperature

21. Does a pre-born infant react to external stimuli?

Yes, studies reveal that pre-born infants can react to light variations, familiar sounds and voices and also to the emotional states of the mother and her movements. 5

22. Does sensory deprivation affect brain development?

Yes, sensory deprivation negatively affects brain development. Specifically, the stages where neuronal cell death occurs and synapses are refined are extremely dependent on inputs from external environment. It is seen that brain size as well as cognition is affected in individuals who have had some kind of sensory deprivation during the developmental phase. 5

23. Does environmental stimulus cause structural changes in the brain even after maturity?

Yes, the brain is susceptible to micro-changes in its structure caused by the stimuli from external environment. It is seen that college-going students have a larger number of dendrites as compared to the high school students. 5

24. Does the brain have an associative area for the body parts?

Yes, the brain has certain association areas for the body parts. The specific area becomes developed due to the repeated use of that particular body part. For example, a child who plays violin has a more developed association area in the cortex for thumb. 5

25. How do brain connections develop during childhood?

Both before and after birth, an initial "blooming" of brain connections known as synapses occur. Stimulating experiences activate certain neural synapses, and this triggers growth processes that consolidate those connections. Synapses that are not activated progressively wither over time. Through this "use it or lose it" principle therefore, the architecture of the developing brain becomes adapted to the needs of everyday stimulation and experience 15.

26. What are the important findings of the landmark study by Chugani?

Chugani used Positron Emission Tomography (PET) to measure glucose and oxygen utilization in the brains of children, infancy through age 15, who had histories of seizures. The purpose was to provide information about the various areas of brain activity during children's maturation. Chugani's study indicated that children's brain activity, until age 16, stayed at a higher level than adults' did. It also showed that the repeated use of neuronal pathways results in certain connections being strengthened, while some are lost 27.

27. What is meant by ‘modular’ brain?

Richard Restak, a Washington neurologist describes the human brain as modular. He writes that that brains are "arranged according to a distributed system composed of large numbers of modular elements linked together”. No area holds sway over all the others, nor do all areas of the brain report to an overall supervisory center. This decentralized organization, which is presumably the result of millions of years of evolution, incorporates numerous systems for performing particular tasks, such as recognizing faces, throwing objects, and counting. Ability probably developed in response to a corresponding environmental challenge 57.

28. Which part of the brain is associated with executive skills?

Frontal and prefrontal cortices are associated with executive skills. 45

29. Which side of the brain is responsible for perception and recognition of facial expressions?

Right hemisphere is involved in the ability to perceive and recognize expressions on the face. 20

30. Does any difference occur in perception of facial expressions depending upon which visual field the image is presented to?

Yes. It is seen that people tend to perceive the facial expressions more quickly if presented on the left visual field than in the right visual field. 20

31. Which side of the brain, when damaged, results in erroneous recognition of facial expression?

Damage to right hemisphere can lead to impaired recognition of facial expressions. 20

32. Which part of the brain functions to understand the emotional content of the face as well as perceive auditory and visual inputs?

Frontal part of the brain is responsible to identify the emotional content of the faces as well as receive auditory and visual inputs. 20

33. How can you measure the brain's electro-physiological activity during recognition of expressions?

Measurement of event-related potentials (ERPs) is a noninvasive method that can be used to assess the electro-physiological activity of the brain. This is a useful tool used in understanding the activities of the brain during the process of recognition of expressions. 20

34. What are event-related potentials (ERPs)?

Event-related potentials are representation of changes in the brain activity in relation to a particular event. These changes are short lived and can be measured to differentiate the type of activity. In response to an event, a group of neurons are activated to release electrical discharge. ERPs are meant to record these electrical activities. 20

35. What are the advantages of using ERPs?

ERP has many advantages. It gives valuable information about the ongoing electrical activities of the brain during the process of recognition of an expression. It also specifies whether the hemisphere difference occurs in early stages or later ones of stimulus processing. 20

36. What do you mean by neural plasticity?

Neural plasticity refers to the brain changes needed for generating and revising the information stored in the brain. 27

37. What is the significance of neural plasticity?

Neural plasticity is essential in learning any kind of skill - whether intellectual, emotional or motor in nature. It acts as a base for perception, learning, cognition and adaptive behavior in general. 27

38. How can we reverse the effects of damage to plasticity mechanisms once they have been impaired?

27 Certain therapeutic drugs can be used to improve the damaged mechanisms Drugs can also be used in combination with existing behaviorally-based interventions.

39. How does synaptic growth manifest itself in an infant?

In infants, rapid synaptic growth correlates with the rapid acquisition of new skills. 27

40. Does the right half of the brain have the same means of communication as the left half?

The right and left halves of the brain have different means of communication. The left half of the brain can effectively process spoken language whereas the right half does not have the skills to do so. In addition, the left half of the brain cannot comprehend social and emotional content while the right half of the brain can. 57

41. What is Wernicke’s area?

Wernicke’s area is the part of the cortex in the left temporal lobe which controls the ability to figure out and understand speech. If there is damage to this area, the ability to ‘understand’ words will be lost. 57

42. Which part of the brain is associated with development of speech and language?

The angular gyrus of the inferior parietal lobule is responsible for development of speech and language. 57

43. How is the neocortical mantle of the left part of the cerebrum associated with language?

The neocortical mantle of left part of cerebrum is involved in understanding of grammatical, syntactical, and descriptive components of language. It is also responsible for ‘time sense’, rhythm, verbal concept formation, analytical reasoning, and verbal memory. This part of the brain regulates many features of expressive language functioning such as reading, writing, speaking, spelling and naming. 57

44. What constitutes the language axis in the Brain?

The language axis consists of amygdala, Wernicke's area, the inferior parietal lobule, and Broca's area – all of which function together to help the person perceive and express the contents of language and speech. 57

45. How are the components of language axis connected?

The components of language axis, namely amygdala, Wernicke's area, the inferior parietal lobule, and Broca's area are connected through a bundle of axons,. 57

46. Is the language axis of the right and left hemisphere interconnected?

Yes, the language axis of right and left hemispheres is connected through axonal fibers. 57

47. What is the function of corpus callosum and anterior commissure?

Serving as an interconnection between language axis of right and left hemispheres, the corpus callosum and anterior commissure help transfer information across the hemispheres and help synchronize their actions. 57

48. What is amygdala?

Amygdala is a structure embedded deep in the temporal lobe, but is linked well with all areas of temporal lobe, including the neocortex and fiber pathways which link Wernicke's receptive speech area with Broca's expressive speech area. 57

49. What is meant by isolation of language axis?

Also called as isolation of speech area, it is a condition in which all of the neocortical tissue surrounding the language axis is destroyed due to lack of blood supply. In this case, the language axis becomes totally detached from the surrounding cortical tissue. In spite of that it remains an intact functional unit and all of the experiences become a big gap. 57

50. What is the function of Broca’s area?

Broca’s area is responsible for final structuring of linguistic information into speech. The information is syntactically and grammatically organized and later converted to speech. 57

51. How are neural connections related to problem solving?

It is seen that strong pruning of the neural connections result in the development of an efficient brain. Because this type of brain has fewer synaptic connections, it results in better problem solving abilities. 7

MEMORY

1. What are the memory stores of brain?

There are three memory stores of the brain:

· Sensory register

· Short-term memory

· Long-term memory

25

2. What do you mean by working memory?

Working memory is a kind of short term memory storage required for processing bursts of thoughts. It is the collection of structures and processes within the brain used for momentarily storing and manipulating information. Attention and concentration is very crucial in working memory as there is a mechanism that directs specific information to long-term memory. The stimuli or information not attended to are subsequently lost. 26

3. Define reaction timeas it applies to mental operations?

Reaction time is defined as the time elapsed between a stimulus and the response to it. More scientifically, it is the time required to complete given mental operations. It indicates the speed of processing of information with different stimulus materials and situations. 26

4.How can one improve memory and recall of stored information?

A positive emotional environment aids the memory of a student. Hence a positive atmosphere must be encouraged while learning. It is better to connect learning to all kinds of senses to strengthen memory. Information is stored and may later be recalled if we find the information useful. Memory can also be improved if the concept we are learning has a strong beginning and end. Finally, everybody has different techniques working for them to enhance memory and recall. The recall technique of mnemonics is one such example 34

Note from Smart Neurons: Our products weave in visual representations and imagery, sound associated with pronunciation of words, music to keep the children’s brains alert and constantly changing situation contexts to create a rich platform for learning. All these things help strengthen memory of newly learned words and sentences.

5. What is the role of short-term memory in learning?

The short-term memory of the brain decides whether the information has to be stored for long-term retrieval. If the information is not processed and sent to the next level of the memory, it drops out and is forgotten. However if it is linked to an already existing larger system of information, it is stored. 35

6. How is information from the short-term memory stored in the long-term memory?

Any information being processed in the short-term memory system can be stored in the long-term memory through 35 :

· Repetition or rehearsal of the same information

· Associating it with other information

7. Can you add to the computational reserves of your brain?

Yes, brain computational skills can be added to and learning can be expanded. It is seen that unfamiliar or new areas of learning are taken up as challenges by the brain. This in turn stimulates dendrite growth and expansions forming new connections. In other words any new learning reconstructs the brain. Hence, learning can be expanded at any age. 35

8. Why do we forget certain information?

Information is stored if it has been revised and applied in real life situations. We tend to forget information that is not useful to us in our practical lives. Information that is used in real life situations is found to be elaborately encoded and stored in our memory and can be retrieved when required. This finding has important connotations for enhancing the learning experience – education must be as practical as possible in order for it to be retained. 33

9. When caught in an unfamiliar situation, why do we fail to use information or strategies that were already taught to us previously?

Research studies reveal that many neuronal connections and associated systems are responsible for a single cognitive function. These systems work closely together but they are also highly independent units. Hence if the circumstances change, the neural connections may fail to connect thereby rendering previously learnt information useless. 33

10. How can one improve memory and recall of stored information?

A positive emotional environment aids memory. Hence a positive atmosphere must be encouraged while learning. It is better to connect learning to all kinds of senses to strengthen memory. Information is stored and may later be recalled if we find the information useful. Memory can also be improved if the concept we are learning has a strong beginning and end. Finally, everybody has different techniques that work for them to enhance their memory & recall functions. The recall technique of mnemonics is one such example. 34

13. What is the role of short-term memory in learning?

The short-term memory of the brain decides whether the information has to be stored for long-term retrieval. If the information is not processed and sent to the next level, it drops out and is forgotten. However if it is linked to an already existing larger system of information, then it is stored for long-term retrieval. 35

14. How is information from the short-term memory stored in the long-term memory?

Any information being processed in the short-term memory system can be stored in the long-term memory through 35 :

Repetition or rehearsal of the same information
Associating it with other information

15. Can you add to the computational reserves of your brain?

Yes, brain computational skills can be added to and learning can be expanded. It is seen that unfamiliar or new areas of learning are taken up as challenges by the brain. This in turn stimulates dendritic growth and expansions forming new connections. In other words new skills can reconstruct- the brain. Hence, learning can be expanded at any age. 35

16. What are the age-dependent variables that affect working memory development?

There are certain age-related variables that decide the development of working memory. These are 53

· Processing speed

· Storage time

· Strategic variations

· Variations in representational format

17. According to the theory of memory, what strengthens the development relationship between phonological working memory and verbal abilities?

Vocabulary knowledge is said to bridge the gap between phonological working memory and verbal abilities during the developmental phase. 53

18. What is controlled processes of information?

Information can be stored in the brain and retrieved when required. However, if the brain has some conditions that specify the type of storage areas, then storage and retrieval becomes easy. In other words, the brain can carry out a condition-specific search and recall the information, instead of going through all the information in the memory. 23

19. Higher-ability individuals boast of better storage and retrieval of information. What is the reason behind this?

Research studies propose that higher ability individuals have controlled processes of information rather than automatic ones as in average performers. The storage and retrieval is according to the specifications provided, hence an efficient system is in progress. The search for information is specific and constrained rather than a general one. 23

20. Does the working memory capacity have any role in better information storage and retrieval?

Yes, the working memory capacity is more effective in higher-ability individuals. They have a larger working memory capacity that allows connectivity amongst various pieces of existing information. The segregation of information on the basis of specifications helps in a better retrieval of information. Searches are also more successful when they are specific and to the point. 23

21. How does the brain process information?

Any input to the brain in the form of information is stored only if it is relevant or connected. When we get information input, the brain forms an account or a ‘basis’ of that information. Also, the context of the information is analyzed and connected to information already stored (from prior experience). Together, these processes of account formation and situation-related storage help in accurate and rapid retrieval of information. 23

22. Is well-structured information easier to recall?

It is seen that well structured information needs less processing in the brain but retrieval of such information requires effort. On the contrary, information input with variation or irregularity has to be processed more and the situation context is better developed. Hence this information is easily retrieved and analyzed. 23

23. What is the figure-ground theory of human learning?

According to a new school of thought, the human brain process and system evolved as a need to explain and take a broad view of the survival related problems perceived by us. According to the theory, human intelligence is a result of natural evolution of human needs and not memory. 25

24. Why do some scientists reject the long-term storage metaphor of brain?

According to new theories, the brain cannot have static areas of information storage. This is because the microstructures of the brain are always in flux. A reason behind this is that the proteins are rapidly broken down and new protein structures are formed. Therefore, the brain cannot have long-term storage systems. 25

25. What are the memory structures according to the information-processing model?

According to the information-processing model, the brain has three memory stores:

· Sensory register

· Short-term memory

· Long-term memory

It is a dynamic system where an executive regulates the input to each store and the outcome of it. 25

26. How is information processed in the subsystem and micro-systems of the brain?

The subsystems and the micro-systems of the brain process information in co-ordination with each other.. The ongoing brain activity of the subsystem and the momentary constellation firing of the micro-systems together form a blueprint or design that has both the components - static and changing. This schema can be retrieved later. 25

27. What is the significance of two concurrent brain activities in figure-ground hypothesis?

The two concurrent brain activities, namely ongoing brain activity (OBA) and the momentary constellation firing (MCF), are essential as per the figure-ground hypothesis. The OBA maintains an ongoing stable and constant base of knowledge and the MCF takes care of the figures changing with respect to the ongoing base. The OBA is concerned with the internal ground of the brain whereas the MCF looks after any deviation from this. 25

28. How does the interaction between ongoing brain activity and momentary constellation firing help in perception?

Ongoing brain activity creates thematic knowledge, which serves as a background to distinguish categorical knowledge that is created by the momentary constellation firing. Both should be different in order to be detectable. Categorical knowledge could only stand out in the context of thematic knowledge. 25

29. What are the sources of self-regulation in a bio-functional model of the brain?

In a bio-functional model of the brain, there are three sources of self-regulation. 25 These are:

· External or stimulus regulation.

· Dynamic or subsystem regulation.

· Active or executive regulation.

30. How is short-term memory and long-term memory explained in terms of the bio-functional model?

According to the bio-functional model, short-term memory is more or less like the momentary constellation firing. It is short lived and forgotten once it has completed its job. It can be stored for a longer time if it is made an ongoing process by the ongoing brain activity with techniques like rehearsal and mnemonics. Hence the interaction between the ongoing brain activity and the momentary constellation firing decides the life span of information in the memory. 25

31. Why do students forget what they are taught?

Our ability to re-create the memory and recombine all or most of the elements (which are stored in millions of neurons) depends on the strength of the original experience, including the emotional load. One reason why students forget what they are taught is because the information served no useful purpose in their lives and was devoid of emotional impact. This type of information is not elaborately encoded in the brain and hence easily forgotten. 33

32. How is memory stored in our brain according to recent scientific evidence?

Recent evidence suggests that we do not store memories whole and therefore do not retrieve them that way either. When we remember something, we actually reconstruct it by combining elements of the original experience. Although we have the illusion that everything comes together in a single anatomical theater, recent evidence suggests that it does not. Probably the relative simultaneity of activity at different sites binds the separate parts of the mind together 29.

33. How can we enrich the environment to optimize learning?

We can adopt following strategies to optimize learning:

· Establish a positive atmosphere. Pay attention to the physical and visual aspects of the classroom as well as the auditory and emotional atmosphere in the room. Keep the environment positive, remembering that students learn not only content but also context.

· Use upbeat music for transition times, and use classical or instrumental music for group work, testing, and other "quiet time" work. Research on music and learning has shown that music that plays at or near 60 beats per minute improves learning and memory, actually slowing down brain waves and increasing optimum functioning.

· Use positive visual reminders.

· Create an interactive environment. The brain learns best with active rather than passive learning (doing vs. absorbing) 34.

34. How can we gain and sustain learners’ attention?

Following simple ways can be adapted to gain and sustain a learners’ attention:

· Integrate novel or strong emotional connections to learning.

· Use laughter. Appropriate humor and jokes can help lower stress and create a fun and relaxed atmosphere.

· Allow movement. Integrating movement into learning activities increases circulation and oxygen flow to the brain, which in turn can increase student attention. Plan your class activities so that movement is built in.

· Be aware of external and internal attention 34.

35. What are the ways to increase memory and recall in students?

In brain-based learning and teaching, to the ways to increase memory and recall are:

· Recognize the importance of emotion.

· Create sensory associations.

· Integrating sensory associations into teaching and learning will greatly facilitate memory and recall.

· Make learning personally relevant to students.

· Use creative repetition.

· Remember the importance of first and last. Therefore, it is important to create powerful beginnings and endings in teaching and learning.

· Teach specific recall techniques. Mnemonics, associations, linking information, and creating personal recall techniques can all help improve memory and recall. 34

36. What role does short-term memory play in learning?

The short-term memory (STM) plays an important role in learning. On stimulation, the sensory system passes the stimulus to the STM system. The STM determines the value of this stimulus learning for later on. If it considers that a stimulus is important, it encodes it in long-term memory system (LTM). Otherwise, it permits the information to drop out of the system. 35.

37. How is a stimulus encoded in long-term memory system?

A stimulus is encoded in LTM system in two ways: (1) through rehearsal or repetition, or (2) through associations or relations amongst various pieces of information. When the LTM system receives new information, the brain's structure is changed – it becomes reconstructed. New associations are formed, and learning is expanded. Teachers must face this awesome truth: Presenting new information to students, with the student's intent to learn, changes the structure of the human physiology of the brain. The student's brain will never again be the same 35.

38. How can a person strengthen his mind?

According to Dr. Scheibel, head of UCLA's Brain Research Institute, one should be actively involved in areas unfamiliar to him to make the dendrites grow and strengthen the mind. He further states, “Anything that is intellectually challenging can probably serve as a kind of stimulus for dendritic growth, which means it adds to the computational reserves in your brain.” The best way for children and adolescents to increase their dendrites and expand their learning is to meet and be challenged by an intelligent, interesting, enthusiastic teacher and stimulated peers35.

39. Do short-term and long-term memories work independently or in parallel?

Short-term and long-term memories work in series. The short-term memory comes into play when an input is received. It is extremely unstable and if not strengthened through rehearsal and attention, the memory is eventually lost. Through rehearsal and paying attention, short-term memory leads to long-term memory which is more stable and permanent. 56

40. How is thinking related to memory?

Thinking is thought to be the process of interrelating symbols within working memory (or short-term memory) as well as between long-term and working memory. 47

PARENTS AND CAREGIVERS

1. Is learning affected by the way children bond to their near and dear ones?

Yes, bonding influences the way a child learns. Bonding promotes healthy connections and interactions and children view the world as a positive place to be in. These ways in which children bond to each other help them develop problem-solving skills 36

Note from Smart Neurons: Most researchers believe that one of the best things a parent can offer a child is a loving and positive environment. If this is not available, then no matter what tools, games and gadgets you expose them to – the child’s overall development will not progress successfully.

2. What is the role of pro-social learning in development of emotionally healthy adults?

Pro-social learning helps the child develop an attitude of caring and acceptance of varied perspectives. Pro-social activities encourage the child to practice the ways of caring that he has learnt from his environment. Also, it provides him an opportunity to analyze the result of it. This helps him build healthy relationships 36.

3. What is the role of families and communities in creating a caring atmosphere for childhood education?

Family members are immediate teachers of the child and hence they should provide a supportive and caring atmosphere for the child. Educational institutions should be supportive and caring to the children as well as their families. Communities can contribute in this by providing opportunities and infrastructure for the same 36

4.What is the role of parents and caregivers in the brain development of a preschool child?

Caregivers and parents are the significant mediums to provide necessary stimulation for brain development in preschool children. Activities like talking, singing, playing and reading to a child help develop a healthier brain. Parents can also provide a reduced-stress environment which will provide a fertile field for exploration and experimentation which are important factors that govern brain growth. 15

Note from Smart Neurons: One of the most important things a parent can do for a child is to sing, play and read to them. Parents can use our Software CDs and DVD to help them with this process – however, we do strongly encourage parents to be involved when the children are using our products. This will not only strengthen the child’s learning but also will provide opportunities for the child to bond with the parent.

5. Does brain development occur throughout life?

Some forms of brain development occur throughout life. These are:

· Experience-expectant development

· Experience-dependent development 15

6. What is meant by experience-expectant development?

Experience-expectant development of brain is through the human experiences that the brain expects for its balanced development. These experiences are provided by the parents and caregivers during early childhood. The research shows that love and security provided by parents is necessary for the normal growth of a child’s brain. 15

7. What is meant by experience-dependent development of brain?

Experience-dependent development of brain occurs due to the day to day experience and is unique to each individual. Structure-wise, each brain is different due to the different types of stimulations they experience. For example, the region of abstract thinking is more developed in a writer due to the frequent use of that area. 15

8. Can the learning ability of the brain be affected by external environment?

External environment has a direct effect on the learning activities of the brain. Adults display the skills that are learnt from birth onwards. All the activities in the external environment are grasped, filtered and selective information is imbibed by the brain that constitutes the basic learning function of the brain. 5

9. Does writing behavior need to be modeled in children?

Adults should model writing behavior in children. This helps them to learn the right grip on the pen or pencil. Children learn the appropriate grip by watching the adults handle the pencil or pen 37 ).

10. How can adults promote literacy in young children?

Adults can promote literacy in children by providing a non-threatening environment that provides opportunities for non-conventional ways of learning, for example play. Adults are role models for children; therefore adults should represent model behavior 37

11. What are the elements of family ecology that affect learning?

There are three elements of family ecology that affect learning in children 36 These are:

· Attachment relations - these are the relations which a child has with the adults directly caring for him. These relations provide a sense of security to him.

· Adult role models - Adults serve as role models to the child in teaching him how to love a and care for others

· Opportunities for pro-social learning - the adults should provide an environment that helps the child exhibit his capacity to care and reflect the response to it.

12. What could be done to increase a child’s receptiveness?

Constant prompting by the adult facilitates the child's construction of schemas and cognitive development and is one of the best methods to nurture a child’s receptiveness. The exploration of fields outside education proves to be highly beneficial. 42

13.What should parents do to enhance a child’s development?

A child’s development very much depends upon his interest in things, just as it is with a young man choosing his career. A very important factor is identification of giftedness. Every child has some inherent talent and that is what parents should explaore and develop. 43

14. Does parental habit affect the child?

Evidence from research shows that habits like alcoholism and smoking have a negative effect on a Childs’ development as the child tends to take up those habits, and conversely, an enriched environment can preserve a greater number of cells in the aging brain memory. Therefore habits parents have both prior to and after the child’s birth have an immense effect on the child. 44

15. Is early intervention in a child’s learning helpful?

There is ample research evidence showing that interventions during the preschool years often result in positive outcomes with regards to the learning process (especially in the case of gifted children). Also in successive years the environment around a child should be information-rich, with access to books, CD-ROM computer information, an informative video library, and adults to help access information and answer questions, and suggest new directions for intellectual stimulation. 5

16. What is experience- expectant brain development?

In experience-expectant brain development, early experiences provide essential catalysts for normal brain development. Without these essential experiences, brain growth goes awry. The developing brain "expects" and requires these typical human experiences, and relies on them as a component of its growth 15.

17. What is experience-dependant brain development?

In experience-dependant brain development, individual experience fosters new brain growth and refines existing brain structures. These experiences can be unique to an individual. For instance, the brain of a musician who plays a stringed instrument differs from the brain of a poet who works with words and abstract ideas because they have exercised different brain regions throughout their lives. These experiences influence neural connections uniquely in different individuals, as they account for new learning and skills. This form of brain development occurs all through life 15

18. How do parents and other caregivers contribute to healthy brain development?

Parents and other caregivers contribute to healthy brain development by talking, singing, playing, and reading to a child. These activities are valuable, especially if they are developmentally appropriate and are attuned to a young child's interests. But more significant contributions occur when parents obtain prenatal and postnatal health care; protect children from environmental hazards, dangerous drugs, and viruses; secure appropriate immunizations, and early vision and auditory screenings; and prevent accidents. The continuing efforts of parents to keep stress manageable and environments safe for secure exploration offer significant protections to the development of healthy brains and minds 15.

19. What is the importance of relationships in early brain development?

Relationships provide the nurturing that strengthens children's security and well-being, offer the cognitive challenges to exercise young minds, impart many essential catalysts to healthy brain growth, and help young children discover who they are and what they can do 15.

20. How does society benefit from early childhood development programs?

In terms of benefits to the society, early childhood interventions increase the individuals’ productivity as the child matures. Early childhood investments can reduce the costs and improve the efficiency of primary schooling. Children, who are well prepared - physically, mentally and socially - have an easier transition from home to school. As a result, dropout and repetition rates are lower, reducing the need for remedial programs, thus cutting the overall costs of education. Investments in early childhood development have been shown to modify inequalities rooted in poverty and social discrimination by giving children from disadvantaged backgrounds a fair start in school and in life 55.

21. Which group based care and education programs are incorporated in early childhood development (ECCD) programs?

Crèches, home daycare, formal and non-formal preschools, play groups, kindergartens, and childcare centers in the workplace are some of the group-based care and education programs incorporated in ECCD programs 55.

22.What elements of family ecology affect the learning of children?

Three "family ecology" elements affect the learning of children:

· attachment relations,
· adult role models, and
· opportunities for pro-social learning.

Attachment relations are those relationships children have that convey the rich meaning of being loved by a caring adult over a continuing period of time. Adult role models provide children with visible schemas on how to love. If adults are kind to each other, then their children will imitate this way of relating to others. Bonding engages children in healthy connections to their parents and family in ways that help them visualize the world around them as a positive and good place. Positive bonding is known to enhance children's problem-solving skills 36.

23.How is family violence detrimental to children?

Family violence not only impedes children's development of caring, but might also nurture in children antisocial ways of living. In addition, evidence indicates that exposure to chronic violence alters the structure of children's brains in ways that make children more impulsive and antisocial 36.

24.What strategies can early childhood professionals use to support family caring?

Early childhood professionals can use five means to support family caring:

· ‘Model’ caring behavior in their relations with families

· Offer parent education on myriad ways to promote caring

· Provide families with opportunities to practice caring

· Validate parental involvement in family caring rituals

· Engage families in doing assessments to develop a basis for strengthening their caring relations 36.

25.What are the important points in early childhood development?

Building learning environments and human relationships that nurture peace and caring in children should be our main focus in early childhood. Three important reminders are in order:

· Parents need to be supported in their role as children's most important teachers;

· Teachers and schools need to provide safe, nurturing, and supportive environments for children and families;

· Communities must foster the caring process through various supports, such as quality childcare and providing more caring places for families (13).

MOODS AND EMOTIONS

1. How can you enhance the creativity of a child?

Research studies show that creative thoughts flow easily if the person is in positive mood. This implies that mutual respect, cooperation, support, value of curiosity and freedom to think independently are important prerequisites of creative thinking. 10

2. What is emotional competence?

Emotional competence is the capability to yield a better performance through a balanced emotional behavior that encompasses self-awareness, motivation, self-regulation, empathy, and adeptness in relationships. It indicates the maximum utilization of the potentials in work performance. 12

3. What is the role of emotional intelligence in learning?

Emotional intelligence is important in providing a constructive environment for learning. It consists of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence decides how a student interrelates between things or to others. It helps him understand others’ behavior and adjust accordingly. Intrapersonal intelligence aids the student in understanding his own behavior and intuition. On the whole, emotional intelligence helps create a positive environment for learning. 12

4. Can emotional competency lead to a higher quality of life?

Yes, emotional competency renders a higher quality of life by making the learner self-determined and by increasing his self awareness. Hence it is recommended that educational institutions inculcate behavioral literacy that helps the students understand their weaknesses and strengths as well as their learning styles and aptitude areas. 12

5. What is the role of facial expression in communication?

Emotions without facial expression are incomplete and do not convey the whole emotion. Facial expressions indicate the type of emotion a person is undergoing and serves as one of the ways to express the person’s feelings. 20

6. Can a baby differentiate between emotions expressed through facial expressions?

Yes, infants start differentiating between the facial expressions from the age of three-months. They can make out the difference between a sad face and a happy face. 20

7. Which part of the brain is responsible for visual perceptual analysis of faces?

Posterior regions of right hemispheres are responsible for visual perceptual analysis of faces. 20

8. At what age do babies start understanding the referential nature of looking?

By 18 months of age, babies start developing an idea about the cause and effect of looking. 21

9. Do emotions have any role in learning?

Emotions have a strong influence on learning abilities. Positive emotions improve memory and enhance learning. This advocates the need for a supportive and caring environment. On the contrary, negative emotions are detrimental to learning. 32

10. Emotions drive learning. Is there a scientific reason behind the notion?

Emotions have great impact on learning behavior because the neural fibers emerging from the emotion center (the part of brain controlling emotions) to the logical or reasoning centre are more than the vice versa. This implies that to a great extent, the behavior is an expression of emotions and not logic.32

11. How can we use emotional impact in a classroom setting to enhance learning?

Positive environment in classrooms promote learning. It is a common finding that school environments that are stressful hamper learning. In a classroom set up, the teacher should be caring and supportive, as this releases chemicals that improve memory and in turn learning. It is a well-known fact that students are academically strong in subjects where they find the teacher is warm and approachable.32

12. How can the expressions parents’ wear on their face manipulate a child’s learning?

The primary learning of a child is mainly through the way of expression. An infant has no other skill but his vision to interpret his parents’ gestures. So, what parents show their children forms the base of learning for a child. Twelve-month-old infants will cross a visual cliff when their mothers pose a happy or interested expression but not when their mothers pose a fearful or angry expression. Therefore, expressive changes must be carefully brought about to give the child the best of primary learning. 20

13. Are gestures important?

A child with no knowledge of language communicates through gestures only. Not only that, a gesture when considered in relation to the speech it accompanies can predict how the speaker is going to solve a problem. Even otherwise, gestures can focus on entirely different aspects of the situation other than speech. 8

14. What functions does the amygdala play in emotions?

The amygdala is the linchpin of our emotional brain. It reads the emotions of others and activates our own, preparing us for flight, fight, or approach behaviour. 54

15. What is the importance of emotion in learning?

Emotions drive attention and in turn, drive learning and memory. Since more neural fibers project from the brain's emotional center into the logical/rational center than the reverse, emotion tends to determine behavior more powerfully than rational processes. Stressful school environments inhibit learning while positive classroom atmospheres encourage chemical responses in students that help them learn. Therefore, integrating emotional expression in a caring classroom atmosphere improves memory and stimulates the brain to learn 32.

16. What are the activities of the infant which indicate that they have acquired intentional understanding of the face?

The activities of the infant which indicate that they have acquired intentional understanding are 21:

· The child pursues direction of the other person’s gaze towards the targets (even when the target is not in their immediate visual field)

· The child points to or shows external objects to others

· He uses the emotional reactions of others towards fixated objects and directs his own behavior toward these objects

17. What is joint visual attention?

The process of following the direction of the other person’s gaze is called the joint visual attention. This is found mostly in infants who want to see what others are seeing. 21

18. Do infants give attention to the eye gaze along with adult head turn?

Infants do not give attention to eye gaze and are directed only by the adult head turn. This happens until 18 months of age. 21

19. What is emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is the capability to recognize emotions, to receive inputs and create emotions so as to support thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. 10

DISABILITY AND IMPAIRMENT OF BRAIN

1. What is reading disability?

Reading disability is a kind of learning disability in which reading achievement is less than what is expected of the age or the grade level. Children with reading disability usually present with problem in cognition and are below average achievers academically. 19

2. Is a reading disability harmful for a child?

Reading disability poses more of a psychological problem to the student. It is defined as a discrepancy between intellectual capacity and academic achievement. Reading disabilities do have a negative effect on learning. One way to overcome this is to bridge the gap between intellect and achievement. Children with reading disability can develop and implement efficient strategies in response to novel tasks. 45

3. How can you measure reading disability?

Reading disability can be measured by assessing the difference between abilities and intelligence. Abilities are statistically measured in the areas of reading, writing, and mathematics. Intelligence is usually measured by psychometric methods. 45

4. What are the possible causes of reading disability?

Reading disability can be caused by a number of factors, some of which are listed below: 45

· impairment of specific cognitive processes

· neurological inefficiency

· emotional disturbance

· environmental factors

5. How does reading disability affect strategic planning?

Reading disability delays the development of strategic planning skills. Children with reading disability take more time to develop and master information processing skills hence making problem solving difficult. This delay is found more in younger children than in the older children.. 45

6. Why does development of information processing skills get delayed in children with reading disability?

One possible reason behind the developmental delay of information processing skills in children with reading disability is the immaturity of myelination in the central nervous system. Because of delayed and insufficient myelination, development of strategic planning skills could sometimes take more time to develop. 45

7. What is global aphasia? Is it the same as isolation of language axis?

Global aphasia is caused by complete destruction of language areas thereby destroying the ability for comprehension, speech output, reading, writing, and virtually all aspects and functions related to language.. 57

8. What does ‘confabulation’ signify?

Confabulation is a believable but imagined memory that sometimes fills in the gaps of what is not remembered. This could also result due to brain injury. 57

9. What is the organic cause of confabulation?

Usually, language area receives input from the neocortical area to perceive, analyze and generate appropriate verbal responses. In case of damage to neocortical area, no inputs are received and the language axis depends on other sources of inputs that are erroneous. These inputs are expressed in the form of confabulation.. 57

10. What is tangentiality?

Tangentiality is the act of replying to a question in an indirect or irrelevant way. It is related to hastiness caused by flooding of the language axis with closely related, although illogical associations. These associations are then processed and expressed. This happens when the person becomes very impulsive and says whatever pops into his or her mind. 57

11. What happens if Broca’s area is damaged?

In case of damage to Broca’s area, there is exclusion and lapse of relational words. In this condition, words that tie a language together, (e.g. prepositions, modifiers, articles, and conjunctions) are not processed. 57

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