Language is a multimodal process and hence can be picked up through imitation. Imitation helps a child in learning language as language can be seen (through lip reading) as well as heard. Language can also be learnt by touching the speaker's lips. 1
2. How do children learn new words?
Children memorize and learn words that are spoken over and over in front of them. . Words which are not familiar generally fade out of memory and as a result are not learnt. The child does not perceive the vocalization of words that he is not familiar with. Hence it is important to talk to the child as much as possible so that the child can learn new words. 1
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD expose children to a rich vocabulary of words. By listening to the same set of words repeatedly, children will be able to memorize them. Also, they will learn the use of these words in the appropriate context settings.
3. What is imitative
language?
Children use imitative language until
they develop verbal language. Imitative
language does not serve any function
once the child starts expressing himself
verbally. 1
4. How is a written language learnt?
It is found that children create an internal mental configuration of the written characters. This mental configuration structure is based on the information presented to the child in the form of the pronunciation of the character, colors, etc. The arrangement of such a mental structure serves as the basis of gradually developing the information about the written language. These structures cannot be taught but would have to be gradually figured out by the child during the course of learning. 2
Note from Smart Neurons: In children who are at the age where they are learning written language, our Software CDs and DVD expose them to brief and easily readable words, sentences and questions. They will also be able to learn the pronunciation of the words. By using our products repeatedly, children will slowly begin to develop mental structures associated with the written language.
5. At what age is handedness established in children?
Studies indicate that handedness is established by 8 to 11 years of age. 3
6. What are the factors that determine manual preference of right or left handedness in children?
Prevalence of handedness varies according to age groups. Following are some factors that determine manual preference in children:
· Genetic factor
· Social factor
· Emphasis on Education 3
7. Is it true that people who are left handed are more intelligent and skilled?
No. Handedness does not affect intelligence or the ability to develop new skills. 3
8. Who among the two sexes has better manual skills?
Studies show that women have a strong lateralization of manual preference. For example, girls develop the skill of pencil manipulation earlier than boys. It is believed that women are better manually skilled than men. 3
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs encourage the hand and finger coordination as the children click on the mouse or maneuver the cursor on the screen to respond to questions. This will generally improve the object manipulation skills in children.
9. When does holophrase develop in a child?
Holophrase or one-word sentence appears at around 18-months of age. 7
10. At what age does a child start using recognizable phonemes?
A child starts using recognizable phonemes at the age of 12- months: 7
11. What is ‘symbolic' communication?
The term symbolic communication refers to the process of communicating ideas with the help of symbols. It can involve linguistic, mathematical, or other symbol systems. The goal is to share feelings, ideas and concepts through symbols.8
12. What are the components of language?
Language is a complex system and has various simpler components. The key components of language are syntax, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. 8
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD lay the foundation for the child to learn language which is a very complex system. Our products expose children specifically to the syntax, phonology and semantics aspects of language
13. Do children have in-built ability to learn language skills?
Children have in-built abilities for developing communication skills. They have an inherent knowledge of universally used communication basics. Besides this, children also possess learning abilities to master language-related skills. 9
14. What is the critical period of brain development with regards to language?
The first three years of life are regarded as the critical period for brain development. In this period, it is crucial that a child be exposed to different languages if possible in order to facilitate strong brain development. Parents and care-givers are encouraged to speak to the child as often as possible. This way, the child is exposed to the various nuances of languages. 29
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD can be used by parents and caregivers to interact with the children. By talking about the stories in the computer games or even by imitating the narrator, parents can help preschool children develop a strong foundation for language skills.
15. How can we
help a child learn language?
Although language comes naturally to a child, its proper form and type must be taught in order to see an early and correct development of the language skills . Language learning should invariably start with symbolic communication. Symbolic communication means understanding others or expressing oneself with symbols, whether that involves communicating linguistically, mathematically, or through another symbol system expressed in speech, gesture, notations, or through some other means. 8
16. Do children have an understanding of comparison?
Children do possess the skill of comparing things. Thus, analogy and comparison are two important skills that must be taught to young children. This enables them to differentiate things and helps them develop critical thinking. One way in which children can improve their ability to detect powerful analogical matches is through comparison . 8
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products (especially our Software CD) help teach children critical thinking and the ability to make decisions based on comparisons and analogies presented as part of a varied and rich scenario. This allows them to ‘detect’ matches in semantic structures and then base their decisions on these findings.
17. Why do high-ability people have good argumentation skills?
High ability individuals have good argumentation skills or good informal reasoning skills. This is so because they have a higher level of verbal skills and good command over language structures that are an important part of argumentation. They can carry out a more controlled search of information and analyze the results. This provides them with good reasoning capabilities. These people can provide more logical explanations for the claim under argument. 23
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD lay the foundation for strong verbal skills and help children gain command over language structures.
18. What is the two-component model of informal reasoning?
Informal reasoning is said to have two components- namely skill and knowledge. 23
· Informal reasoning skill refers to the ability to produce and evaluate evidence for and against an argument. This also includes the efficient use of qualifiers, Meta statements and notions against the argument.
· Knowledge is the result of awareness of subject matter and knowledge from personal experience. These two components are an integral part of informal reasoning.
19. What are the skills required for informal reasoning?
Informal reasoning skills are acquired and not taught. They include knowledge of language structures and the ability to store information on the elements of these structures One advantage of these structures is that they make the retrieval of information easy and also help in the logical analysis of it. High performers with high ability levels acquire the skill through reading and listening as verbal procedures. 23
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD help children develop strong informal reasoning skills since our products emphasize the different language structures and allow a child to explore the results of the decisions the child makes.
20. What are ‘situation models'? Do high-ability individuals differ from others in developing situation models?
Situation models are very important in the process of analyzing and solving a problem. High-ability individuals tend to construct strong and well-developed situation models owing to their good reasoning skills. The average and low performers lack the ability to form strong situation models and are more text-based. 23
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD provide a wide variety of rich and complex situation models. Children are constantly exposed to various changing scenario and they are required to develop their decision-making process in this visually and contextually rich environment.
21. How can informal reasoning skills be improved in low-ability students?
To improve skills in informal reasoning, the curriculum should provide instructions in argumentation. The instructions should be in the framework of specific subjects. These skills should be incorporated at an early age so that children receive reinforcement from time to time. 23
22. What are the hierarchical phases of skill learning?
There are three phases of skill learning . These are:
· Cognitive phase
· Associative phase
· Autonomic phase
23. What is cognitive phase of skill learning?
Cognitive phase is the first phase of skill learning. In this phase, the individual selects the topic on his own discretion and reviews it to prepare a storehouse of information. This information is raw and is stored as isolated pieces within the brain. 25
24. What happens in the associative phase of skill learning?
The associative phase of skill learning is characterized by the gradual transformation of stored information to procedural representation. This happens by inter-relating the isolated pieces of information - thus strengthening the presence of this information in memory 25
25. What are the characteristics of the autonomous phase ?
Autonomous phase is the third phase in skill learning. In this phase, the procedural representation of the skills no longer requires extraneous control or attentiveness by the performer. Instead, the skill becomes automatic. In other words, the skill is mastered and becomes an integral part. 25
26. Which skills are necessary for learning to read?
Oral- language skills such as awareness of and access to the sound structure of the language would be important for a child who is learning to read. Visual skills also seem to be relevant to reading because oral referents need to be mapped to printed ones. 2
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD introduce children to the ‘sound’ aspect as well as the structure of language. Also, visual skills are stressed throughout and children learn by making contextual associations between the spoken word and real world objects.
27. Is the ordering of words in a language important for comprehension?
Comprehension of a language requires both syntactic and semantic analyses. Syntactic analysis is specific to the language that is being read because each language has its own grammatical system. The order of words is the single most important syntactic device for sentence interpretation. Therefore understanding words in a sequence is integral to developing comprehension. 2
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products stress the importance of syntactic and semantic structures in the form of stories that children create using their decision-making process.
28. Should the teaching of spellings be stressed when teaching language comprehension?
Children create spellings based on their knowledge of language and print. It is suggested that spelling errors reveal how children acquire phonological and orthographic knowledge. It is found that constant spelling lessons have a positive effect on a child's comprehension of the language. 2
29. What is the importance of a proper script for developing reading skills?
Children accumulate information about the written script and create an internal mental structure. An improper script can generate wrong understanding patterns amongst children. 2
30. What is epilinguistic control ?
Epilinguistic control refers to the process that characterizes children's internal organization of knowledge; it is acquired in the initial phase of language development. It is non-expressive and manifests only in the child's actions. 2
31. How can a foreign language be taught?
For children, there must be a similarity between the spoken and the written language. They grasp similar patterns better. Therefore a foreign language must be taught in oral as well as in a script form to facilitate effective and faster learning. 2
32. What is meant by executive skills ?
Executive skills are defined as systems that have a hold over cognition. In a way, these systems are responsible for managing cognitive skills. It is proposed that impaired executive skills could lead to reading disabilities in children. 45
33. What is the function of executive skills?
Executive skills are an important part of goal-directed activities. These are sub-skills that are essential for being alert and attentive. Purposeful and goal-directed activity includes alertness and sustained attention in learning, ascertaining particular goals and generating plans to achieve the same. 45
34. What is pragmatic ability ?
Pragmatic ability refers to the ability to keep track of listeners' and speakers' viewpoints and purpose . This helps in developing the skill to use and construe language suitably in social situations. 8
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products require children to listen to instructions or questions and respond appropriately. The end result of this effort is a delightful story that the child helps create on their own. Also, these stories are situated in strong social contexts which will help children develop their social and pragmatic abilities.
35. Does command of the phonological and grammatical structure of one's native language change throughout the life span?
In fact, the command over phonological and grammatical structure of one's native language does not change after middle childhood. However, vocabulary and communicative skills change throughout the life. 8
36. What are inscriptions? How do they facilitate learning?
Inscriptions include drawings, diagrams, maps, physical models, read-outs of instruments, and mathematical expressions. Most teaching methods use a variety of inscriptions to help a student learn the different concepts. 8
37. Does symbolic communication have any role in cognitive development?
Yes, symbolic communication is essential for development of cognition. It influences cognition in the following ways 8
· Children first become aware of symbols.
· Children learn to distinguish between symbols and even use them in their communication
38. How can parents contribute to the development of pre-speech patterns (like smiling, gurgling, etc.) in their infant?
It is seen that infants whose parents talk to them from birth and communicate with them effectively, learn to develop pre-speech pattern early. These patterns include responding with attentive looks, gurgles, smiles and certain other responses in interaction with parental child-directed talk. 8
39. Is the preferred hand more skilled?
No, it is not necessary that the preferred hand is the most skilled hand. It depends upon the task being performed. 8
40. Is it true that boys have more tendencies to be mixed-handers as compared to girls?
Yes, ambidextrous tendencies are found more in boys when compared to girls. 8
41. When do children develop the ability to evaluate themselves?
The ability to evaluative oneself develops in toddlers between the ages of 2 and 3. 10
42. How does language help a child in improving behavior and emotional control?
It is seen that language helps children to improve their behavior and emotional control in the following ways 10 :
· It mediates between the intention or desire and the resulting behavior. Language can bring about verbal self control which can help curb impulsivity and behavior problems.
· Language serves to communicate one's internal feelings to others
· Language can help make the child aware of his own feelings.
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products strongly encourage the development of language skills in young children.
43. What are the key functions of language and communication in childhood?
In childhood, language and communication serve the following functions 10
· A child begins to use language when approaching others
· Language gives the capability to a child to discuss problems and take actions. It allows increases self-control in a child.
· Language can also enhance self-awareness in a child
44. Is spoken language a complex form of movements and gesturing?
Yes, spoken language seems to be a modified complex form of movements and gesturing. In a spoken language, words have to be formed, articulated and expressed. In bringing about these spoken words, a coordinated movement of the lips, larynx, lungs, and tongue are required. At the higher level, all these movements are controlled by the cerebellum and motor neo-cortex of the brain. 57
45. What is American Sign Language?
American Sign Language (ASL) is utilized by the deaf to communicate with others. It is a multifaceted language using gestures for communication. It consists of natural and artificial signs which are articulated into a grammatical gestural language. ASL is thus visual and verbal, but not auditory. 57
46. Are hand gestures related to spoken language?
Yes, research in this field has shown that spoken language, especially grammatical and syntactical components is directly related to handedness. It is seen that certain activities of the right hand are commanded by the linguistic impulses. Hand gestures seem to operate as a sort of motor extension of language. 57
47. What do you mean by linguistic thoughts?
Linguistic thoughts are a form of communication with the inner self. It is a structured chain of command or train of associations that are noiselessly heard or which emerge before an observer in the "mind's eye. 57
48. Do adults use ego-centric speech?
No, ego-centric speech is used by children and never seen in adults. 57
49. What is the meaning of ego-centric speech?
Ego-centric speech is a form of thinking in which the individual thinks out aloud and talks to oneself. Generally, it comprises of making remarks on and clarifying one's actions. Usually children exhibit this kind of thinking both when they are playing alone and when they are in groups. 57
50. Why are women more resistant to the effects of brain injuries and developmental disorders related to speech?
Women are found to be more resistant to effects of brain injuries and developmental disorders related to speech because their right cerebral hemisphere is structured more efficiently (especially with regard to social and emotional language functions). 57
51.Which part of the brain is associated with language output?
Broca's area of the left frontal lobe is associated with language output. 58
52. Do deaf children have normal language and cognitive development?
It is seen that deaf children communicating with their deaf parents through sign language are exposed to visuo-spatial language experience. Although these children are deprived of auditory experiences, they undergo a normal development of language and spatial cognitive functions. 58
53. What is like-me mechanism?
Like-me mechanism is a hypothesis that states that infants possess an inherent like-me mechanism which figures out equivalences between movements-as-felt and movements performed by others. This reinforces the theory of imitation in infants. 58
54. When does imitative language develop?
Imitation develops at the age of eighteen months of age in infants. 58
55. What are the characteristic features of imitation language?
Following are the characteristics of imitation language 58
· Develops when the child is eighteen months of age
· Evolves for the next two years
· Disappears once verbal language is learnt
· Progresses in multifaceted and coded combination of imitation and being imitated
56. Is early childhood experience of infant-caregiver relationship accessible?
No, the early experiences of child-caregiver relationship cannot be recalled. These experiences are stored in the amygdala portion of the brain and are stored before the development of language; hence, early childhood information cannot be recalled. 10
57. What is the significance of language in a child's emotional and behavioral control?
The child acquires emotional and behavioral control through language in the following ways 10 :
· Language sets a balance between intention (or desire) and behavioral action
· It helps to communicate one's internal state to others
· Language helps the child to become intentionally aware of how he or she is feeling
58. What is meant by epilinguistic control?
The process that describes children's internal organization of knowledge is called epilinguistic control. It is developed in the initial phase of language development. Organization of epilinguistic control is unconscious and becomes apparent only in children's actions. 2
59. What is meant by metalinguistic control?
Metalinguistic control is a process by which children become conscious of and implement intended control over the many aspects of language. 2
60. What features of verbal language are based on attributes of the imitative language?
The features of verbal language that are based on some of the attributes of imitative language are 1 :
· Taking turns
· Sharing topics
· Understanding the other person's intentions
· Negotiating shared goals through codes and routines
61. How is spoken language based on movements and gestures?
Spoken language is an interplay of movements and gestures. The process of speaking is a complex phenomenon. According to the intricate programming of the cerebellum and the motor neocortex of the brain, a coordinated movement of the lips, larynx, lungs, and tongue occurs. This joint effort results in formation, articulation and expression of the idea as spoken language. 57
62. What is the importance of reading to children?
Reading to children is one of the best ways to model literacy skills. In addition to engendering a love of books, reading to children gives them a sense of what the reading process is all about, introduces them to the concept of written language, and familiarizes them with literacy conventions. Before children can learn to read, they must learn why people read and what people do when they read 37 .
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD read out engaging and fun stories that help build the foundation for literacy skills. Our products also introduce children to the written language by selectively exposing them to specific language structures.
Play is very essential in developing gross and fine motor skills as it involves lots of physical activity. Play also helps the children become aware of their body. As they enjoy the physical exercise, they also enhance their sense of self-confidence, self-esteem and security. 38
Note from Smart Neurons: We strongly encourage parents and caregivers to play with their child – and to expose children to interactive and playful activities. Playful activities that involve physical movements help build children with healthy bodies and healthy minds.
2. Does play have any influence on learning abilities?
Yes. Play has a direct effect on learning. It gives a wider scope of experience and a larger platform to practice the skills and master it. Play increases intuitiveness and presents a wider exposure to learning opportunities. 11
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products introduce children to playful computer games that are simple yet require abilities like comprehension, decision-making and simple motor skills to reach the end goal.
3. Are play and higher mental functions related?
Higher mental functions like language, memory, thinking, attention, abstraction and perception are self-generated activities and require thought process. In children, play serves as an exercise for the brain to sharpen the thought processes that provide the building blocks for developing higher mental functions. Play also helps in building creativity and problem solving skills in children. 11
4. Play can improve children's vocabulary abilities. Is this correct?
Yes, children who are involved in thematic pretend and socio-dramatic play have better communication skills. During play, children learn new ways to communicate, add to their vocabulary and put their thought processes to work. Play stimulates them to think, analyze and create new ideas. 11
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products expose children to a varied array of socio-dramatic plays. They are constantly encouraged to think and analyze the situations that are presented to them.
5. How do toys help in learning and development in babies?
Toys are not only a source of entertainment for babies but also are effective medium for learning. When a baby tries to grab a toy, he is in fact learning eye to hand co-ordination. With the hand trying to grab the object, his senses become aware of the body parts and its movements. The baby becomes aware of the actions and the effect produced by it. Toys are also a source of generating curiosity in babies. 6
6. Should a child be allowed to play with children who vary in ages or are of the opposite sex?
Generally, children prefer playmates of the same sex and of a similar age group. To gain a better understanding of others' needs and also to become exposed to different patterns of thinking, it would be best if children would also mingle with children who are either younger or older. This way, a child gains knowledge about different aspects of life and learns to fit in better within the society. 41
7. How do children develop social skills through play?
Play promotes development of social skills in children. They learn to handle their emotions and practice self control. Play is a group activity that gives them a platform to share power, space, and ideas with others. It makes them aware of what others want and expect. They also learn to accept other children's behavior and perspective. 38
8. How does play contribute to children's learning and development?
Play is an active form of learning wherein children can explore their own knowledge, activity and observations. It has a strong emotional connection and hence stimulates neuronal expansion. Because of this reason, the information acquired through play is long lasting. Children find the play an interesting and relevant activity that is appropriate to their expectations and success. They can learn a variety of skills, ideas and concepts in a very non-conventional but interesting way. 38
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products use play to create an active platform of learning wherein children can explore different social contexts and arrive at their own observations.
9. What are the strategies employed to solve a simple arithmetic problem?
Following are the methods, students use to solve a simple arithmetic problem 7 :
· Sum strategy- this involves the process starting from one and moving forward
· Minimum strategy- this involves counting form the larger addend
· Decomposition- solving the problem by dividing it into two or more simpler problems
10. Can Play help a child to overcome traumatic events?
Play has a direct effect on a child's thought processes . Play helps children to get rid of negative feelings caused by traumatic events and substitutes them with more positive ones. It also allows children to practice, elaborate on, and perfect their skills as they do the activity in an enjoyable mood. By exercising their minds through different play behaviors, children become capable of using high-level mental functions. Task-oriented games can also teach problem-solving skills to children. 11
11. Can communication be taught through play?
Children involved in group-play show greater communicative skills. They learn how to share objects with others, put their demands forward, etc. It also helps in language development and vocabulary abilities. 11
1. Which age period
is important in learning new information
and building new skills?
Research shows that the period between 1 to 3 years of age is critical for children in learning new information and building new skills. 5
2. Is brain development limited to early years of our life?
No - brain development is not limited to early years but is a life-long process that is regulated by the processes of thinking, feeling and adapting. 15
3. Does there exist a basic factual science that propels a child's development?
Learning experiences shape the development of the brain from birth through adulthood. Several thousand genes are present in the body, and they guide the development of the nervous system. This also points out to the inheritance of intelligence. The heritability of IQ goes up with age, accounting for 75% of the variance by late adolescence. There are neurons that grow with development and respond to the external environment by forming synapses. 44
4. Why is it important to help children develop sub-skills ?
Sub skills are necessary for purposeful and goal-directed activity . They include:
Focused and sustained attention, specific goal selection, generation and implementation of plans and strategies for the attainment of these goals, as well as monitoring and utilization of feedback. 45
5. How does learning progress?
Learning is a process that goes on in discreet chunks. This means that it is a step-by-step process. Trying to make a child learn several things at a time could lead to confusion. Instead, helping him learn a simple thing as a group of many whole experiences can have the desired effect. 25
6. How can skills related to reasoning be developed in a child?
Reasoning skills are best acquired by reading and listening. So a growing child must be put in the habit of reading and listening to speeches as much as possible. 47
Note from Smart Neurons: By using our products, children are exposed to listening to different sentence structures, questions and to fully-developed stories. They are also required to respond to questions – and each answer will shape the end result differently. This can greatly help in developing reasoning skills in the child.
7. What factors hamper the positive development of a child?
Children must be shielded from arrogance, biases, hatred, cheating etc. During the child's growing years, these negative emotions can seriously impede a positive development in the child. 26
1. Can drama be
used as a teaching tool in language
development?
Yes, drama and pretend-play serve as excellent teaching tools for development of complex concepts in language. They can help students understand the conceptual and intangible elements that are an important aspect of literacy development. Also, the students learn as a group and they also learn to cooperate with each other and work more effectively. 13
Note from Smart Neurons: Participating in drama, schools plays, etc. has found to help the overall social development of the child. It is encouraging to know that many schools are now strongly promoting children’s participation in drama, plays etc. either as part of the regular curriculum or as after-school program.
2. Does music have any effect on brain development?
Yes, music has a direct and positive impact on the development of brain and cognitive abilities. Exposure to music education stimulates the process of neuronal connections in brain known as synapses. It also improves branching of the neuronal ends. This is very important for higher brain functions. 32
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products use very lively and engaging music that have been found to have a soothing and calming effect on the children. This helps children calm down and keep their brains at the right level of excitement so that it is conducive to learning.
3. What are the brain functions that are affected by music education?
Mostly the higher mental functions are affected by training in music. Some of these are math, language and spatial reasoning. 32
4. Can music enhance academic skills?
Music is found to improve educational abilities in children. It is seen that slow music brings about cortical and limbic attentiveness. On the other hand, fast notes improve moods. On the whole, music refreshes the mind and prepares it to process new information. 40
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD expose children to very lively and engaging music that are based on Mozart and Beethoven. These pieces have been especially chosen given the calming and refreshing effect they have on children’s brains.
5. What are the brain functions that are affected by music education?
Mostly the higher mental functions are affected by training in music. Some of these are math, language and spatial reasoning. 32
6. How does musical training help in cognitive development?
The latest neurological research on brain development and its relationship to music education reveals that training in music has a positive effect on cognitive development. The musical nourishment and enrichment of young children stimulates the formation of connections (synapses) and the growth of branching extensions (dendrites) in the brain. Training in music at an early age exercises higher brain functions, including complex reasoning tasks. Musical skills also help children develop in other areas, such as math, language, and spatial reasoning .32
7. Is dance a language?
Yes, the brain perceives dance as a language of motion and movements. 57
8. Which part of the brain processes music?
The right hemisphere and the limbic system are involved in processing music. 57
9. How can music be effectively used in a classroom setting?
Research on music and learning has shown that music that plays at or near 60 beats per minute improves learning and memory, actually slowing down brain waves and increasing optimum functioning.
1. Computers have
invaded every field of life. Is the
home computer a helpful learning tool?
Computer stimulates and sharpens the visual senses and is found to help develop the visual intelligence. The image representation in computers strengthens various aspects of visual intelligence including visual attention, space awareness and image distinction. To sum up, computers can be efficient teaching tools that enhance academic performance. 14
2. Can computer games help build intelligence?
Often, computer games have a variety of activities happening at the same time, and each of the activities require attention and evaluation. The varied visual experience of computer games can explore most aspects of visual intelligence while improving non-verbal acumen. 14
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs do have enough activities happening on the screen so that they can all be processed easily by a young child. The rich animation and lively social settings provide varied visual experience which helps build non-verbal intelligence.
3. Can computers be used in classroom teaching?
Yes, computers can become an indispensable part of classroom learning. The computer technology in classroom is more interactive and attractive so that it keeps the students engaged in learning. It helps develop higher mental functions and assists in education. 18
4. What are the factors required for effective learning?
The basic factors essential for learning to be effective are as follows 16 :
· Active engagement
· Participation in groups
· Frequent interaction and feedback
· Connections to real-world contexts
5. Are there any changes required in the present education system for incorporating
computer technology as an effective teaching tool?
Yes, there are few changes required in the present education system in order to incorporate computers as leaning tool. Some of these areas are 16 :
· Teacher training on using computers
· Curriculum that utilizes the computer
· Student assessment using computers
· A school's capacity for change
6. What effect can feedback have on learning?
Feedback is very important in learning. It is found that learning is more rapid and effective when ideas can be applied and timely feedback is given. The feedback given decides the operationability of the idea and encourages learning of the idea. Feedback also gives a direction to learning. 16
7. Can computer feedback accelerate the learning process?
Computers can improve interaction with the learner. Computers can be applied to asses and evaluate students and also provide timely feedback to accelerate learning process. 16
8. How does computer connect the classroom subject matter to the real world?
Using computers, students can actually apply classroom teaching to real world situations. This increases retention of the content. The computers also help apply the ideas in different contexts that give a wider scope for understanding the concept. 16
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CD uses ‘rich’ real-world situations as the basis for the computer game. Children learn about real-world situations like the forest, farm, school, etc. through our software CD and this helps them build contextual information pertaining to these real-world situations.
9. Are computer action games beneficial in any way?
Consider popular action games with their rapid movement, imagery, and intense interaction, plus various activities occurring simultaneously at different locations on the screen. Studies indicate that children who play such games can improve their visual intelligence skills. Such skills may be especially useful in the fields of science and technology, where proficiency in manipulating images on a screen is becoming increasingly important. 14
10. What are benefits of using computer technology in children's education?
Computer technology has been demonstrated to enhance classroom instruction by making learning more engaging, and by providing new ways of teaching complex concepts and critical thinking. The use of technology that incorporates visual and collaborative teaching practices has helped promote learning amongst students of all ability levels, especially those with mild learning disorders 18 .
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD lay the foundation for critical thinking and help promote learning amongst children of all ability levels.
11. What are the potential dangers associated with computer technology?
Some critics feel that computer technology encourages asocial and addictive behavior and taps very little of the social basis of learning. 16
Note from Smart Neurons: We strongly encourage parents to spend as much time with their children by playing with and reading to them. Although our products expose children to rich social scenario, nothing can replace the benefits gained from real-life interactions with other children in playful settings.
Giftedness is the inborn tendency to exhibit certain qualities that otherwise would require some kind of formal training. Research proves that there are certain preconditions that lead to development of such inborn abilities. 17
2. Do Favorable circumstances lead to development of artistic skills??
No, the statement is not correct. Some studies show that artistic ability develop in favorable conditions but most of the studies indicate that artistic skills do not develop in favorable conditions but rather they develop by overcoming the circumstances that are against it. 4
3. What are the factors affecting giftedness?
Giftedness was once thought to be a gift that one was born with and which could not be acquired either through study or practice. However, some studies indicate that there are other factors that can affect giftedness. Following are some factors that influence the development and expression of giftedness:
· Innate strengths and weakness – once aware of their strengths and weaknesses, one can influence circumstances so that one is playing from a position of strength most of the time
· Social factors – this pertains to the importance one's society places on giftedness
· Historical background
· Cultural practices – these may encourage or undermine the expression of giftedness
· Socially accepted performances 4
4. How are culture and talent related?
Talent is a special skill or ability that usually develops in the confinement of cultural boundaries. If a talent is not culturally accepted, it is not accepted and supported within the society. As a result, it may not get the attention that it deserves. On the other hand, if a talent is accepted by the society, it holds significance and gains recognition. This will encourage gifted people to demonstrate their talents. 4
5. What are the qualities of a creative person?
Degrees of creativity are often measured by the extent and quality of innovation. Highly creative people often demonstrate the following characteristics:
· Individuality
· Highly personalized pursuit of interests
· Preference for complexity of problems
· Preference for theoretical aspect of problems
· Preference for aesthetic aspects of problems 4
6. How is the development of skills in gifted children different from that in normal children?
The different stages of development of other skills often remain the same for both groups of children but the gifted children start developing certain specific artistic skills much ahead of their peers. Gifted children demonstrate accelerated development of artistic skills when compared to their peers. They are often many years ahead of the other children when it comes to their artistic skill training. However, this accelerated development leads to the much mastered talents. 4
7. Is giftedness confined to a specific field?
No, giftedness is not specific to a single field or subject. Giftedness can manifest itself in any field like language, music, logic, mathematics, visual-spatial intelligence, dance and other artistic expressions of the body and including intrapersonal and interpersonal connecting. 4
8. Do gifted children have early brain development?
Yes, brain development in gifted children may begin before the time frame of 1-3 years. Hence the environment has to be modified accordingly to support this. 5
9. What are the potential fields for giftedness?
The potential fields of giftedness are as follows 4 :
· Language
· Music
· Logic/mathematics
· Visuo-spatial relating
· Bodily/kinesthetic applications
· Intrapersonal and interpersonal
connecting
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD emphasize building skills in Language, Music, Logic, Visuo-spatial abilities and social skill development. Our future products will also target mathematics.
1. What type of environment supports
effective learning in children?
Research studies show that environment
should be conducive to learning. Children
should have easy accessibility to
books as well as to computer-aided
(quality) information. It is also
suggested to have an informative audio-visual
collection. However, the most important
thing is that adults should be available
to guide and encourage children and
help them get access to the required
information. 5
2. How can a brain be stimulated?
Our brain is a marvelous organ that
has the ability to react lifelong
to the changing environment. It loves
challenges and problem solving that
serves as mental exercises for the
brain. If a task has to be mastered,
constant motivation is required. Tasks
that are assigned should be one level
more difficult than what the child
can perform. The brain takes this
up as a challenge and gets stimulated.
Over a period of time, the task is
mastered to perfection. 5
3. What techniques could be applied
to help students assimilate information
effectively?
Integration of learned information
is necessary for effective learning.
Following are some of the techniques
that can be used to consolidate information-
· Observations made in a Field
Trip
· Discussions with other children
or parents
· Classroom demonstrations
· Thought-evoking Discussions
· Practical projects 6
4. What are the three basic units
of brain involved in cognition?
Research shows that there are three
units in the brain that are involved
in the process of cognition. These
are:
· The arousal and attention
unit- This part of the brain is for
concentration, the state of waking
and the readiness to perception.
· The sensory input and integration
unit- This part of the brain is involved
in the act of receiving, analyzing,
and storing information
· The executive planning and
organization unit- This unit is responsible
for planning the activities ad executing
the same. 22
5. Why should we keep the nerve
cells in good working condition?
We are born with a fixed set of nerve
cells. It remains constant throughout
our life because we do not grow any
more new cells. The nerve cells needs
to be kept healthy in order to prevent
their loss. Constant stimulation should
be provided to the nerves in terms
of learning so that the brain cells
remain active and healthy. The nerves
tend to be inactive if not used. 27
6. How does one acquire the skill
of informal reasoning?
Informal reasoning cannot be taught
but has to be acquired through daily
experiences, reading and listening
to others. High performers who are
adept at learning new things show
a higher degree of informal reasoning
than others. However, the skill of
informal reasoning can be acquired
by exposing oneself to education training
that will provide the tools to acquire
a higher degree of reasoning in any
given field. 23
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD expose children to a variety of situations that help them develop informal reasoning and arrive at conclusions.
7. How does scaffolding help in learning?
Scaffolding is a teaching tactic
that believes in giving the right
kind of support at right level to
promote students’ success and
a higher level of understanding. Education
strategies like instruction, modeling,
questioning and feedback are used
with gradual withdrawal of adult support
to make the student confident and
achieve the required learning outcomes.
24
8. What is reflection in terms of
learning?
Reflection is a powerful learning
tool that a learner uses to analyze
one’s performance on the task
at hand. Reflection can also help
the student establish what he might
do better the next time. It helps
to retain acquired learning. Students
can use this method to reinforce and
improve learning by comparing their
performance to the performance of
experts and other learners. 24
9. A positive outlook is important
in learning. How does play help children
develop a positive attitude?
Research has proven that children
learn better when they have positive
feelings. On the other hand, learning
is poor in a negative environment.
Play serves an important medium to
vent out negative feelings and related
frustration. It also helps to ease
out memories of traumatic events.
Hence children who play tend to be
free from such negative feelings and
have more learning capacity. 11
10. Apart from experiences, what
are the other factors that influence
learning in children?
Various environmental factors influence
learning in children. Some of these
are:
· Nutrition
· Drugs
· Viral infection
· Toxins in the environment
· Temperature 5
11. What type of curriculum
augments brain development and learning?
There are no specific curricula for
enhancing learning but it is seen
that curriculum that involves a combination
of cognitive, social, emotional, aesthetic
and physical activity contributes
to learning. A curriculum should provide
challenges that are one level higher
in difficulty and hence gives scope
for learning venture. An environment
that is safe, secure, supportive and
warm is also conducive to learning
and helps with brain development.
29
12. Are uniform teaching
technologies helpful in learning?
For majority of the students, uniform
teaching practices are not very helpful.
The reason behind this fact is that
all brains are structurally different
and so are the cognitive abilities.
Each student has a different learning
style and if the teacher conforms
to that style, then learning becomes
more effective. Individual centered
practices, rather than uniform teaching
methods are more important in learning.
32
13. Is it true that all students
in a cultural group have the same
learning style?
No, the learning abilities differ
even within a cultural group. As the
learning styles do not depend on the
cultural background, theories on them
cannot be generalized. 32
14. What are the physiological
functions that influence learning?
Physiological functions like stress
management, nutrition, exercise and
maturation affect learning capabilities
in children. 32
15. What are the characteristics
of a good learning environment?
A good learning environment improves
memory and learning. It should provide
meaningful challenges with a safe
risk. A learning environment that
values emotion, self esteem and need
for social interaction tends to promote
learning. Classroom learning should
incorporate activities that help develop
skills like social and emotional skill
building, group problem solving, and
team building. More innovative teaching
techniques should be used rather than
the classical classroom teaching.
The students should be given the freedom
to express their emotions and feelings.
32
16. What are the various modes
of teaching other than classroom teaching?
Apart from classroom lecture, there
are other modes of teaching. They
are simulations, role-playing, field
trips, dance, art, and music. 32
17. What can the teachers do to
make learning more interesting and
retainable?
The quality of learning depends wholly
on the teacher. Teachers can make
learning more fun through their enthusiasm
and by being a role model to the children.
The classroom environment should be
one of shared goals and mutual respect.
Teachers can replace the lecture-method
with stories, metaphors and complex
themes. For acquiring these skills,
teachers must have a strong knowledge
base. They also need to understand
the complexity of learning and teaching
phenomenon. 32
18. Enlist the methods of ‘smart
learning’.
The methods of smart learning are
tips to improve learning in students34.
They are:
· Think smart
· Sleep smart
· Eat and Drink smart
19. What are the techniques to
prepare a learner?
There are six ways to prime a student
for learning34. These
are:
· Advise students to strengthen
their existing learning style and
gradually try other techniques also.
· Encourage them to think
smart, i.e. the skill of goal setting
that is important for all achievements.
· The students should have
adequate sleep to refresh their brains.
· Adequate and correct nutrition
also enhance learning.
· Dehydration leads to poor
learning, so students must be encouraged
to drink lots of water.
20. How do you create a positive
environment for learning?
A positive learning environment has
a lot of influence on learning. A
teacher should try to keep the classroom
atmosphere as positive and lively
as possible. Active mode of learning
is the best learning method. The physical
and visual aspects of the room should
be taken care of. There should be
no auditory distractions. Use positive
visual reminders if necessary. Music
should be played in free time when
classroom sessions are not in progress
as it relaxes the mind and strengthens
memory. 34
21. What are the ways to keep
students attentive in class?
A teacher should know that learning
happens best in a relaxed environment.
Jokes and appropriate humor can make
learning lively. Provide opportunities
for movements that tend to increase
blood and oxygen to the cells and
improve attention. The concepts being
taught should be related to real life
situations or have strong emotional
connections. All of these methods
help teachers sustain the attention
of the learners. 34
22. Is it harmful to incorporate
academic concepts to the preschool
curriculum?
No, academic concepts are not harmful
to the preschoolers educational development
provided this does not involve any
formal instructional program. On the
contrary, academic concepts can promote
learning in preschool children if
amalgamated with informal play settings.
37
23. What is the role of reading
in childhood education?
Studies indicate that reading to
children is the foundation stone for
the development of other literacy
skills. When an adult reads to a child,
it makes the child acquainted to the
process of reading and makes him aware
of the written language. The child
develops an idea as to what it is
to be read to. Reading to children
extends literacy learning. 37
24. Are reading aloud and talking
about stories helpful in literacy
development?
Reading aloud and talking about stories
help develop a healthy attitude towards
literature and encourage the child
to continue learning. It strengthens
the vocabulary skills of the children.
This is because children tend to speak
through their ideas, emotions, understandings
and reactions. Therefore response
to a story is an efficient method
for literacy development. 39
25. How can a teacher help in
literacy development through story
telling?
A teacher can use story-telling and
elicit responses to stories to assist
literacy development in children.
However, the teacher must acts as
a good moderator in this kind of learning
to keep the students stick to the
subject. In other words, the teacher
must keep the discussion goal oriented.
The teacher must utilize this opportunity
to enrich the students’ knowledge
about literature. 39
26. What should a teacher do if
the students’ state is not suitable
to learning?
A teacher should know that learning
takes place if the students are in
an upbeat state of mind. If their
state of mind does not allow active
learning, the teacher should divert
them to some activities that are relaxing.
This may include stretching, exercising
or a simple conversation. Even music
can be used to bring the students
to an equalized state of mind. 40
27. How can you enrich the learning
environment?
There are three characteristic features
of a good learning environment- challenge,
novelty and feedback. Appropriate
amount of mental challenges is a motivating
factor. Challenges that are too tough
makes the students give up early.
On the other hand, challenges that
are too easy are very boring. New
challenges of appropriate difficulty
level serve as the best stimulants
for learning. Immediate feedback is
also necessary to evaluate learning.
Timely feedback can decrease stress
level in students and increase coping
abilities.40
28. Do males and females develop
sex-dimorphic behavior with respect
to specialized visual biases?
Yes, both the sexes have developed
specialized visual biases. Men are
fascinated with motion. Their visual
system is more adaptive to spatial
tracking of objects. This is seen
in their preference of cars, planes
and other moving objects. 41
29. Do punishment-based approaches
help in learning?
Punishment-based approaches have
a negative effect on learning and
inhibit motivation. 12
30. What type of curriculum augments
brain development and learning?
There are no specific curricula for
enhancing learning but it is seen
that curriculum that involves a combination
of cognitive, social, emotional, aesthetic
and physical activity contributes
to learning. The curriculum should
provide challenges that are one level
higher in difficulty thereby creating
opportunities for learning. Also,
it is important that the child be
in an environment that is safe, secure,
supportive and warm since it is conducive
to learning and brain development.
29
31. What are the factors involved
in brain-smart teaching?
Following are the factors that constitute
brain smart teaching:
L- Love that builds relationships
E- Enjoyment and fun while engaged
A- Autonomy and choice
R- Relevance including worthwhile,
valued activities
N -Needs-driven activities that respect
uniqueness
S -Safety, both emotional and physical
that assures absence of threat.40
32. Do males develop sex-dimorphic
behavior with respect to specialized
visual biases?
Yes, both the sexes have developed
specialized visual biases. Male children
are fascinated with motion. Their
visual system is more adaptive to
spatial tracking of objects. This
is seen in their preference of cars,
planes and other moving objects. 41
33. Do punishment-based approaches
help in learning?
Punishment based approaches have
a negative effect on learning and
inhibit motivation. 12
34. What are the strategies employed
to solve a simple arithmetic problem?
Following are the methods that most
students use to solve a simple arithmetic
problem 7:
Sum strategy- this involves the process
starting from one and counting up
Minimum strategy- this involves counting
from the larger addend
Decomposition- solving the problem
by dividing it into two or more simpler
problems
35. What effect could discriminative
teaching have on children?
This way of teaching helps to culminate
amongst children the sense of good
and bad and helps develop the idea
of responsibility toward things. Also,
helping students demonstrate responsible
behavior during cooperative learning
activities allows them to work together
more effectively. 13
36. Can crafts work help in learning?
To help children in developmental
psychology, we must integrate various
theories and increase awareness of
children's developmental needs. Classroom
demonstrations, discussions, and practical
projects enhance both student interest
and help them retain knowledge. A
positive and practical way of achieving
this is to allow children to involve
themselves in crafts work where they
can bring out their inner thoughts.
45
37. Should child’s activities
be attended at all times?
Attending to the child’s activity
is important in order to pick up those
things in which a child is interested.
Children try new motor acts and try
to divert our attention until they
develop strategies to get what they
want at that moment. It may be that,
in infants, developing a successful
strategy is as equally important as
achieving the goal. 27
38. How can children be encouraged
to pursue a higher quality of living?
Making a child understand things
like self-awareness and self-determination
are major factors in helping him obtain
a quality life in the future. An important
educational function thus is to help
children understand their strengths,
challenges, learning styles, and interests.
12
39. Writing is a tool. How is
it helpful in the development of a
child?
Writing affects the way children
think about language. It brings words
into consciousness and helps children
to depict their thoughts. Thus, making
a child write can also help parents
understand their children better.
47
40. What are emergent learning
conditions?
Emergent learning conditions are
methods that encourage extensive experience
with the fundamental units and procedures
of the symbol system in practical
problem-solving situations. These
situations usually allow principles
to emerge via multiple concrete examples.
With this approach, students "discover"
regularities and functional solutions
rather than being taught as per rules
48
41. What is the most important
difference between American and Asian
educational systems?
In the United States, strong emphasis
is placed on the importance of individual
differences in ability among students.
Asian cultures on the other hand tend
to stress the similarities amongst
students. Asians consistently rate
the importance of innate ability lower
than Americans do, and instead rate
the importance of effort higher 50
42. How does the classroom discourse
differ in between American and Japanese
classrooms?
In Japanese classrooms the prevalent
form of discourse is the discussion.
In American classrooms on the other
hand, it is the recitation technique:
short questions and answers designed
to lead the students through a planned
path to understanding. Japanese teachers
ask questions in order to induce thinking.
They ask students to describe alternative
solutions, explain them, and justify
them in the face of questions from
peers. American teachers ask questions
in order to control the direction
in which the lesson moves 50
43. How differently do Japanese
teachers behave from their American
counterparts?
In American classrooms the teacher
is the authority, the arbiter of right
and wrong. Japanese teachers are very
reluctant to play this role. American
teachers tend to quickly correct mistakes
when they do occur, and almost never
ask children who have incorrect answers
to problems to display their solutions
to the class. On the contrary, Japanese
teachers see errors as a natural part
of the learning process and as important
sources of information about children's
mathematical thinking. They believe
that discussion of incorrect solutions
can play an important role in children's
developing conceptual understanding
of mathematics 50
44. What are the educational implications
of the double-activity hypothesis?
Double activity hypothesis has the
following implications 25:
· The schools must adopt whole-experience
learning rather than associative learning.
· The hierarchical structuring
of present-day school curricula should
be modified.
45. Why should the schools shift
their focus from associative learning
to whole experience schooling?
It is found that learning does not
occur in chunks. It occurs in the
context of already existing thematic
ground. Hence information is imbibed
as a contextual whole and not in pieces.
Therefore schooling based on associative
learning is believed to be a wrong
practice by some researchers. 25
46. Should the hierarchical structuring
of contemporary school curricula be
changed?
According to the bio-functional model,
the hierarchical structuring of school
curricula is wrong. The curriculum
has
· Separate introductory or
discrete-part learning
· Intermediate or relation
learning
· Advanced or skill integration
and automatization
However, the bio-functional model
proposes that learning in part is
not stored and is forgotten because
it does not have a ground to stand
on. Hence learning is a whole experience
and cannot be divided. Part learning
can occur, but only on the ground
of whole experience. 25
47. What do children first learn
when they enter school?
They first start to learn how to
read. Generally, new entrants in a
school are fluent in their respective
home language, so there is a mismatch
between what they read and what they
understand. Therefore, a good reading
atmosphere must also be provided at
home. 2
48. What extra-curricular activities
should be incorporated in the curriculum
to optimize learning?
Games, simulations, role-play, field
trips, dance, art, and music should
be incorporated into the curriculum
to optimize learning. The financial
support for these activities should
come from the school community. 32
49. How do children learn from
instructions?
Children tend to make a mental representation
of the events in the lesson and they
learn the content of the lesson based
on this representation. 50
50. What are the factors that
affect the student’s ability
to make a mental representation of
the lesson?
Following are some factors that affect
the student’s ability to make
a mental representation of the lesson
50:
· Characteristics of the learning
session itself
· Purposes and expectation
of the lesson
· Previous knowledge pertinent
to the content of the lesson
51. What are the components of the
basic processes involved in task performance?
The components of the process involved
in cognitive task performance are
as follows 24:
· cognitive analysis of situational
signs
· potentials at the approaching,
starting and performing phases
· emotional responses
· coping strategies
52. What are the different types
of coping strategies used during a
cognitive performance?
During a cognitive performance, the
learner uses the following strategies
24:
· Task-oriented coping
· Ego-defensive type coping
· Social-dependence-type coping
53. What is task-oriented coping?
Task-oriented coping is manifested
by exploring, recognizing and makeover
of the task essentials, as well as
orderly planning. Task-oriented coping
helps a child to develop interest,
enthusiasm and inquisitiveness. 24
54. What is eco-defensive type of
coping?
Students with an inclination towards
ego involvement and helplessness have
a propensity of ego-defensive coping.
When given a task, he considers the
task to be difficult or himself to
be not appropriate for the task. Also,
he does not expect success but aims
at decreasing tension. The emotions
related to this are inhibitory in
nature like fear of failure and anxiety.
Poor sense of self-efficacy prevails
and the student fails. The failure
is often attributed to difficulty
of the task or blaming oneself for
the failure. 24
55. What is meant by social-dependence
type coping?
This kind of coping strategy is seen
in students who have a disposition
towards seeking help or approval.
When given the task, the student assesses
the end solution and the possible
sources of social supports. His expectation
of success is high with no inhibitory
emotions. But the success is not based
on personal abilities but on teachers
help and rewards. Concentration on
getting teachers' advice for the next
step hampers students from self-contained
exploration, transformation of task
elements, and systematic planning.
24
56. What type of teacher interaction
occurs with a task-oriented student?
A task oriented student is considered
as a good student by the teacher owing
to his task-related keenness, determination,
and self-regulation. Because the student
exhibits persistent efforts in the
face of obstacles and with minimal
cueing, the teacher develops confidence
in the student. Often teachers give
direct criticism regarding the students'
performance, because they know that
it will not be taken as an insult
but as a factual correction. Because
the teachers share prospects pertaining
to the ongoing growth of the student's
self-contained functioning, they repeatedly
use task approach demands and prompts
for independent working. 24
57. What happens in a student teacher
interaction with an ego-defensive
student?
An ego-defensive student often deals
with difficulties and demands of the
teacher through avoidance or off-task
behavior in order to relieve the associated
tension. In response to this, the
teacher tries to balance the situation
by increasing task-approach demands
or by giving up. 24
58. How does a teacher interact with
a socially dependent student?
The qualified role of teachers as
the one to guide, facilitate, and
reward behaviors is re-enforced and
utilized by the socially dependent
students. When these students request
assistance and social feedback, teachers
of elementary classes are all too
ready to help the student. 24
59. How does the quality of interaction
affect the coping tendencies?
The quality of interaction and the
coping tendencies are inter-related.
Each leads to the other. If a socially
dependent student continues to get
the help he seeks, it reinforces his
coping tendencies and he tends to
use this approach more often. On the
other hand, the socially dependent
behavior tempts the teacher to help
the student. 24
60. What are the strategies that
affect the quality of learning outcomes?
Following strategies are proposed
that may influence the learning outcomes
24:
· Activation of previous knowledge
· Inferences based on teacher's
utterances
· Anticipation about teaching
aims
· Construction of macrostructures
· Construction of the situation
model
61. What is meant by activation of
previous knowledge in classroom learning?
Activation of previous learning can
serve as a powerful tool to relate
classroom teaching with non-classroom
teaching. It means recalling the knowledge
gained in previous classroom teaching
as well as knowledge gained through
experience outside the classroom (that
is, from day to day experience)..
24
62. What is school discourse?
The phenomenon which happens outside
the schools and school texts is termed
as school discourse. 24
63. Is it important for the student
to know about the ‘teaching
aims’?
Yes, if the students have a good
understanding of the teaching aims,
learning is much more goal directed.
In teaching-learning exchanges, adequate
understanding of short- and long-term
teaching objectives is very essential..
24
64. How do macrostructures help in
learning?
The construction of macrostructures
strengthens learning. This is the
process whereby the student ties all
the information presented to him and
makes sense of it all.24
65. Is the construction of the situation
model important in learning?
Construction of situation model is
very important in learning as it is
the link between classroom teaching
and the experiences outside the school.
It is in fact, a way to put theory
into practice. A situation model represents
the understanding of the real-world
phenomena referred to in the texts.
Most of the students do not create
any pertinent situation model, but
instead confine themselves to learning
school knowledge. In this case, their
knowledge becomes more bookish and
lacks practicability. 24
66. Do motivational coping strategies
affect comprehension?
Yes. Motivational and socio-emotional
coping strategies have outstanding
effects on comprehension. Motivation
is a good tool that a teacher can
use to facilitate effective comprehension.24
67. Which students are the most capable
of school discourse and comprehension?
The students with task-oriented coping
strategies have the capability to
apply the lessons learnt at school.
They are also efficient at developing
situation models that are relevant
outside the school. 24
1. What are the benefits of emergent
learning conditions?
Emergent learning conditions might
facilitate second language and arithmetic
learning. Second languages and mathematics,
like first languages, are complex,
formal symbol systems. Their instruction
may benefit from attempts to duplicate
implicit learning conditions in instruction
48.
2. What are the principles of ‘math
math”?
The principles of ‘math
math’ are:
· Encourage everyday problem
finding.
· Introduce key mathematical
structures as quickly as possible.
· Draw children's informal
knowledge developed outside school,
into the classroom.
· Use formal notations (identity
sentences and equations) as a record
for discussions and conclusions.
· Develop the child’s
trust in his own knowledge.
· Talk about mathematics;
don't just do arithmetic 49
3. What are the important
findings of a study on ‘street
math’ by Brazilian developmental
psychologists?
Brazilian developmental psychologists
made a distinction between mathematical
performances "in the streets"
and "in the school" in their
study. They documented stunning, flexible
computational skill by child street
vendors who could not manage school
arithmetic. In the Brazilian research,
children and adults whose everyday
work required mathematical performances
of the kind just described, carried
them out without errors. Yet many
of the same individuals, when given
written arithmetic problems in school
form, with identical numbers in them,
could not do the arithmetic at all.
49
4. How can we encourage
everyday problem finding?
To encourage everyday problem
finding is an important principle
in teaching ‘math math’.
Its main goal is to undo the disconnection
between home or street learning and
school learning, thereby bringing
street math to school. By using problems
that the children bring to school
as the basis for a formal lesson,
one should teach the children implicitly
that what they do and think about
at home is math. 49
5. What are the findings
of recent studies on comparison between
Japanese and American students?
Recent studies have demonstrated
beyond doubt that Japanese students
far outperform their American counterparts
on tests of academic achievement,
especially in the areas of mathematics
and science. In one study of fifth-grade
elementary school students, for example,
the highest performing school in the
U.S. sample scored less on a test
of mathematics achievement than the
lowest performing school in Japan.
50
6. What is the difference
between American and Japanese lessons?
American lessons appear designed to
produce a certain performance or problem
solution, to teach students how to
solve a particular class of mathematical
problems. Japanese lessons, in contrast,
appear to be aimed at facilitating
thinking and sense making amongst
the students. Lesson structure, classroom
discourse, the role of the teacher,
and the pace of instruction all differ
markedly between Japanese and American
lessons in ways that might lead Japanese
and American students to process instruction
in different ways 50
7. How can we make mathematical
concepts meaningful to children?
One of the most common ways of
ensuring that mathematical concepts
will be meaningful to children is
to embed the concepts in word problems.
By being forced to apply the concepts
to everyday problems, children gain
an understanding of how mathematics
is relevant to real-life situations
51
8. How do American students
fare in mathematics when compared
with students from other countries?
American children's understanding
of mathematics remains amongst the
worst of all the industrialized countries
surveyed. In fact, the gap between
what East Asian children and American
children know about mathematics may
be increasing. Secondly, the highest
level of mathematical achievement
that many American students ultimately
reach is quite low 52
9. What changes during
instruction (discourse) can be done
to improve the performance of American
students in mathematics?
The results of research carried
out by Stigler, Fernandez and Resnick,
suggest that the following instructional
changes may improve mathematical achievement:
· structure lessons around
quantitative problems embedded in
meaningful context,
· have students attempt to
solve these problems in collaborative
groups,
· discuss as a class the various
solutions derived by groups of students,
· encourage multiple answers
and the view of mathematics as an
open-ended problem solving activity,
and
· use different materials
and formats to represent each problem
52 10. What suggestions do
Stevenson, Stigler and Fernandez make
to improve the performance of American
students in mathematics?
Stevenson and Stigler and Fernandez
suggest alteration of the American
educational system and cultural beliefs
to resemble those of East Asia. These
suggestions include increasing class
sizes to allow teachers to spend more
time preparing for lessons, providing
children with more breaks during the
school day, eliminating tracking,
raising academic standards, and teaching
children the importance of hard work
in achieving goals 52
Theory of mind is the realization
of one’s own mind and its working
abilities. In other words, it is the
act of assigning a specific mental
state to oneself and to others. It
develops in the early phase of child
development. 53
2. How can one determine the development
level?
The developmental level can be ascertained
by evaluating the type of cognitive
functions that can be performed. The
higher the complexity of the cognitive
task carried out, the greater is the
level of development in the child.
These cognitive tasks can be related
to vocabulary, phonological performance,
etc. 53
3. What does informal reasoning mean?
Informal reasoning is the ability
to analyze a given situation. In other
words, if given a statement or conclusion,
informal reasoning skills help to
produce, as well as assess and evaluate
the facts. It’s a mental function
carried out in order to grasp the
logic behind a claim. 23
4. In what situation is informal
reasoning most active?
Studies reveal that in decision making,
when in situations where the information
is scarce, we tend to think more.
Informal reasoning is also more active
where the known statements are complex
and open-ended. People use informal
reasoning skills to debate a topic
or a claim. 23
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software CDs and DVD expose children to reasonably complex and open-ended situations just so that the children can develop their informal reasoning abilities. By evaluating the end result of their responses to these open-ended situations, children gain understanding of cause-and-effect.
5. What is an argument?
An argument is a discussion based
on logical reasoning to support or
reject a claim. It is a set of statements
for and against a conclusion and is
arrived at through logic. 23
6. How does one identify an argument?
An argument has certain elements
constituting it. Not all discussions
are arguments. There is a set of qualities
that a discussion should qualify in
order to be termed as an argument.
Contradictions to the argumentative
statement are an important element.
That is, all arguments have some or
the other counterarguments. In lengthy
arguments, care should be taken that
the discussion is going in a proper
direction and that the facts are summarized
time to time. For this purpose there
are meta-statements that help to plan,
direct and clarify facts in an argument.
23
7. How are informal arguments evaluated?
Informal arguments are assessed in
terms of their reliability. 23
8. What are the criteria to judge
a sound agreement?
Following are the criteria to judge
the dependability of an argument 23
· Adequacy of the reason supporting
the argument.
· Relevance of the reason
that supports the conclusion.
· Contemplation of counterarguments.
· Content of the argument.
9. What are the characteristics of
good argumentation?
Good argumentation is a skill. It
should be based on good reasoning.
The reasons supporting the argument
should be adequate, relevant and sound.
They should have been arrived at after
considering all the counterarguments.
The reasons against the notion must
also be well researched and analyzed.
23
10. How can you evaluate informal reasoning in an argument?
In an argument informal reasoning can
be evaluated by asking the following questions 23
· Does the individual state an argument?
· Does the argument have sound reason that
supports the claim?
· What is the quality of a given reason?
· Are both for and against the notion aspects
taken care of?
· Does the individual appropriately use qualifiers
and Meta statements?
· How many acceptable reasons were stated in order
to support a given claim?
11. What is
meant by epistemology?
Epistemology refers to the
study of knowledge that deals with the nature, source and extent of knowledge. 23
12. What are
the types of epistemology in context with informal reasoning?
Informal reasoning encompasses two
types of epistemology:
· Critical
epistemology: People who are adept at reasoning and think analytically on
both the sides of an argument use this technique.
· Make-sense
epistemology- People who are not very skilled in reasoning use this
technique. For them, the acceptability of the argument is based on their gut
feeling. 23
13. How is
informal reasoning related to ability level?
It is seen that argument
structure is closely related to ability level. Higher the ability level more is
the proportion of elaborate structure. It is also influenced by age. Older
individuals or children have higher elaboration in their arguments, indicating
deeper and sounder informal reasoning skills.23
14. What are
the types of reasons?
Reasons are the logic behind a belief
or action 23. They can be
classified into the following:
· Abstract
reasons: These are based on commonsense.
· Consequential
reasons: These reasons state an end result as the product of a particular
action.
· Rule-based
reasons: Rule-based reasons are commonly accepted beliefs or sayings.
· Authority
reasons: This type of reason states action as a result of appeal to an
authority
· Personal
reasons: These are based on personal experience.
· Vague
reasons: These statements are usually ambiguous.
15. How is intelligence described?
Intelligence is
the ability to use one's strengths and overcome one's limitations to solve
problems and meet one's goals. As problems are resolved, we gain increased confidence
to face future challenges. The best way to solve problems is to engage the
logical brain and not reflexively react using our emotions. 54
16. What is The Zeigarnik
effect?
By design, our
brains find problem solving to be a rewarding activity. Once the brain locks on
a problem, it is inclined to keep hunting for solutions. This innate desire to
resolve problems is called the Zeigarnik effect and
it motivates humans to find better coping strategies to deal with conflict
situations 54
Note from Smart Neurons: Our future
products intend to explore this aspect more and will introduce more
problem-solving and mathematical concepts.
17. What are the universal growth needs according
to recent research?
A mass of
research suggests that four growth needs are universal in all children and
across all cultures. According to the Circle of Courage model of Brendtro, Brokenleg, and Van Bockern, these involve:
· belonging,
· mastery,
· independence, and
· generosity.
In effect,
these are the brain-based instructions in the human resilience code. Expressed
in developmental terms, these are the processes of attachment, achievement,
autonomy, and altruism 54.
18. What are the practical strategies one can teach
youth so that they can disengage from destructive and conflicting thoughts?
The following
strategies are very useful in disengaging from destructive conflict with an
aggressive youth:
· Never take anger personally.
· Monitor and defuse own emotional arousal.
· Monitor and defuse agitation.
· Allow sufficient time for cooling down
· Foster a generous spirit 54.
19. How can one connect with a youth who is challenging
authority of an adult?
One can successfully
connect with the youth by using following simple strategies:
· Reach out to the guarded youth.
· Avoid a judgmental tone.
· Connect in times of conflict.
· Understand the overall behavior of the youth.
· Clarify challenging problems.
· Restore harmony and respect 54.
20. What are essential prerequisites for effective
learning according to cognitive research?
Cognitive
research has shown that learning is most effective when four fundamental
characteristics are present:
· Active engagement,
· Participation in groups,
· Frequent interaction and feedback, and
· Connections to real-world contexts 16.
21. What are the flaws in the research cited by
proponents of brain-based curricula?
Most of the
brain research from which the proponents of "brain-based" curriculum
appear to have drawn their claims is correlation. Another flaw in the reasoning
of many "brain-based" curriculum proponents is that the research they
cite has often been performed on adults, or on children who have some obvious
or suspected disability. Even the landmark synapto-genesis
work of Chugani and colleagues, which charted when
various areas of the brain become activated over the first years of life, was
performed with children suspected of having epilepsy 29.
22. Which strategies are significant in cognitive
development in children?
Strategies for
problem solving, decision-making, creative thinking, and meta-cognition are
significant in enhancing cognitive development in children 32.
Note from Smart Neurons: Our Software
CDs encourage children to hone their decision-making skills and their ability
for creative thinking.
23. Why should teaching strategies be tailored
for each individual rather than being uniform?
Each student
processes and absorbs new information in a different way. Identifying learning
styles and teaching to those learning styles can increase academic achievement
and improve attitudes towards learning. Some researchers maintain that uniform
teaching practices will invariably deny many students success in the classroom.
Hence, teachers should concentrate on learning-style strengths of each
individual student32.
24. Which physiological functions affect the
learning capacity of the brain?
Stress management, nutrition, exercise, and maturation are some of the physiological
functions that affect the capacity to learn 32.
25. Is cognitive development quantitative?
Cognitive development is said to be quantitative because it is dependent
on development of knowledge structures. It also depends on enhancement in the
effectiveness with which processes can be performed.46
26. How can similarity comparisons improve children’s learning?
Children benefit from similarity comparisons
as it lays a foundation for more abstract similarity. High-similarity examples
encourage the child to be more imaginative. The fact that at least some of
their associations may be obvious, leads to generation of more subtle
correspondences. The process is intrinsically appealing to the children.
Children play matching games for enjoyment. 8
1. What is myelination and how
does it affect learning?
Myelination is a process during
which neurons and dendrites become
coated with a fatty substance called
myelin to enable neural impulses to
travel faster. This property helps
the information to travel faster,
preventing false impulses and circuits.
Overall, it increases the efficiency
of the brain to comprehend and analyze
the information faster. 5
2. Learning is affected by the development
of brain connections during development.
How do brain connections develop?
During the early years, brain synapses
or connections proliferate. This may
give rise to many unnecessary connections.
Subsequently, whichever connections
are highly used is retained while
others are eliminated. This is called
pruning. The number of connections
that are retained is dictated by the
day to day experiences of the child.15
3. How important are daily experiences
for brain development?
Daily experiences help consolidate
the developed brain connections. The
type of brain connections consolidated
depends upon the stimulation provided.
More and varied the stimulations,
the more connections are used and
consolidated. 15
4. Give an example of the
brain’s early blooming and pruning.
Language development in newborns
indicates early blooming and pruning.
Newborns can distinguish universal
speech sounds, but as they grow up,
their awareness becomes restricted
to the language and sounds that they
hear. The reason behind this is that
as newborns, our brain connections
are proliferated but slowly these
connections are pruned with the language
and audio stimulation we hear.
15
5. Does the brain develop
in stages?
Yes, the development of brain varies
according to the regions of the brain.
The brain areas that control sensory
experience such as sight, touch, hearing,
and other sensations are stimulated
by the early experiences of early
years. As a result, these areas show
maximum development during these years.
The brain areas controlling the higher
mental functions like thinking are
stimulated at later years by ongoing
experience. Therefore, these develop
during the later years of life. 15
6. Does brain activity correspond
with the developmental growth phase?
Yes, the brain activity has a direct
correlation with the developmental
growth phase. Studies reveal that
the development of an infant’s
brain is influenced by his sense of
touch and bodily experiences. 30
7. Which part of the brain
is involved in visual imagery?
The left hemisphere is involved in
visual imagery. 31
8. What is the ‘modular
structure’ of brain theory?
Some researchers believe that the
brain is modular in structure. It
is composed of various independent
modular units working together to
bring about a single act. No area
is considered superior than any other,
nor does it have a line of authority.
All systems work in a coordinated
manner for any given task. 33
9. What is the relation between brain
plasticity and child development?
As development takes place, there
is a huge input of information in
an already molded brain. Plasticity
of the brain allows it to gradually
reshape itself according to the information
being processed. This newly processed
information is stored in very precise
interrelated forms. Hence the brain
plasticity allows it to keep pace
with the child’s overall development.
7
10. What are the four constraints
that infants are born with?
Following are the four inborn constraints
in infants 9::
· Continuity- The infant presumes
that objects move in connected paths
and that these paths have continuity
of motion.
· Solidity- Objects are solid
and hence do not coincide. They move
on unobstructed pathways.
· Gravity- Objects which are
not supported tend to fall downwards.
· Inertia- The objects in
motion do not change their speed abruptly.
11. Do ‘experiences of the
body’ contribute to brain development?
Yes, the brain activity has a direct
correlation with the developmental
growth phase. Studies reveal that
the development of an infant’s
brain is influenced by his sense of
touch and bodily experiences. 30
12. What are the major aspects of
the bio-functional model of the brain?
According to the bio-functional model
of the brain, the key components are
25
· Sources of control
· Relevant characteristics
of brain hardware
· Bio-functional manifestations
of brain characteristics
· Their fuzzy experiential
manifestations and their transient
organizational manifestations
13. What does the brain hardware
consist of?
The brain hardware system consists
of subsystems and micro-systems. The
subsystems are indefinite in number
and are self-directed units. These
units are composed of micro-systems
that are large in number and autonomous
in function. 25
14. What is double-activity hypothesis
of the brain?
According to the bio-functional model
of the brain, the brain processes
information in two modes or has a
double activity system. All brain
subsystems work in co-ordination,
and this is a continuous process.
The micro-systems, however, are engaged
in brief electrical activity. This
system of functioning is termed as
double-activity of brain. 25
15. What is the result of double-activity
system of the brain?
As a result of double activity of
the brain, there are two kinds of
knowledge bases created. 25 These
are:
· Thematic knowledge
· Categorical knowledge
16. What is thematic knowledge?
Thematic knowledge is the outcome
of information processed by the subsystems
of the brain. The ongoing activities
of the brain subsystems create a kind
of holistic awareness that involves
the whole system and is continuous.
This kind of knowledge cannot be directly
analyzed. 25
17. What is categorical knowledge?
The momentary constellation firing
of a micro-system is responsible for
categorical knowledge. The awareness
created is more specified and structured.
25
18. What are the non-modifiable or
cellular factors that determine the
rate of brain development?
The factors that decide the rate
of brain development are as follows5:
· Neural processes of gene
induction
· Cell proliferation
· Migration and aggregation
· Differentiation
· Circuit formation
· Programmed cell death
· Synapse refinement
19. How does genetic programming
contribute to the development of the
brain after birth?
Genetic programming is closely related
to the brain development in external
environment. Genetics determine the
kind of awareness a person experiences
in relation to the external stimuli.
It is responsible for the brain structure,
which is different for each individual.
5
20. Do environmental factors affect
the genetic predisposition in brain
development?
Yes, environmental factors also affect
the extent to which the genetic programming
comes into play. 5 These factors are:
· Nutrition
· Drugs
· Viral infection
· Toxins
· Temperature
21. Does a pre-born infant react
to external stimuli?
Yes, studies reveal that pre-born
infants can react to light variations,
familiar sounds and voices and also
to the emotional states of the mother
and her movements. 5
22. Does sensory deprivation affect
brain development?
Yes, sensory deprivation negatively
affects brain development. Specifically,
the stages where neuronal cell death
occurs and synapses are refined are
extremely dependent on inputs from
external environment. It is seen that
brain size as well as cognition is
affected in individuals who have had
some kind of sensory deprivation during
the developmental phase. 5
23. Does environmental stimulus cause
structural changes in the brain even
after maturity?
Yes, the brain is susceptible to
micro-changes in its structure caused
by the stimuli from external environment.
It is seen that college-going students
have a larger number of dendrites
as compared to the high school students.
5
24. Does the brain have an associative
area for the body parts?
Yes, the brain has certain association
areas for the body parts. The specific
area becomes developed due to the
repeated use of that particular body
part. For example, a child who plays
violin has a more developed association
area in the cortex for thumb. 5
25. How do brain connections develop
during childhood?
Both before and after birth, an initial
"blooming" of brain connections
known as synapses occur. Stimulating
experiences activate certain neural
synapses, and this triggers growth
processes that consolidate those connections.
Synapses that are not activated progressively
wither over time. Through this "use
it or lose it" principle therefore,
the architecture of the developing
brain becomes adapted to the needs
of everyday stimulation and experience
15.
26. What are the important findings
of the landmark study by Chugani?
Chugani used Positron Emission Tomography
(PET) to measure glucose and oxygen
utilization in the brains of children,
infancy through age 15, who had histories
of seizures. The purpose was to provide
information about the various areas
of brain activity during children's
maturation. Chugani's study indicated
that children's brain activity, until
age 16, stayed at a higher level than
adults' did. It also showed that the
repeated use of neuronal pathways
results in certain connections being
strengthened, while some are lost
27.
27. What is meant by ‘modular’ brain?
Richard Restak, a Washington neurologist
describes the human brain as modular.
He writes that that brains are "arranged
according to a distributed system
composed of large numbers of modular
elements linked together”. No
area holds sway over all the others,
nor do all areas of the brain report
to an overall supervisory center.
This decentralized organization, which
is presumably the result of millions
of years of evolution, incorporates
numerous systems for performing particular
tasks, such as recognizing faces,
throwing objects, and counting. Ability
probably developed in response to
a corresponding environmental challenge
57.
28. Which part of the brain is associated
with executive skills?
Frontal and prefrontal cortices are
associated with executive skills.
45
29. Which side of the brain is responsible
for perception and recognition of
facial expressions?
Right hemisphere is involved in the
ability to perceive and recognize
expressions on the face. 20
30. Does any difference occur in
perception of facial expressions depending
upon which visual field the image
is presented to?
Yes. It is seen that people tend
to perceive the facial expressions
more quickly if presented on the left
visual field than in the right visual
field. 20
31. Which side of the brain, when
damaged, results in erroneous recognition
of facial expression?
Damage to right hemisphere can lead
to impaired recognition of facial
expressions. 20
32. Which part of the brain functions
to understand the emotional content
of the face as well as perceive auditory
and visual inputs?
Frontal part of the brain is responsible
to identify the emotional content
of the faces as well as receive auditory
and visual inputs. 20
33. How can you measure the brain's
electro-physiological activity during
recognition of expressions?
Measurement of event-related potentials
(ERPs) is a noninvasive method that
can be used to assess the electro-physiological
activity of the brain. This is a useful
tool used in understanding the activities
of the brain during the process of
recognition of expressions. 20
34. What are event-related potentials
(ERPs)?
Event-related potentials are representation
of changes in the brain activity in
relation to a particular event. These
changes are short lived and can be
measured to differentiate the type
of activity. In response to an event,
a group of neurons are activated to
release electrical discharge. ERPs
are meant to record these electrical
activities. 20
35. What are the advantages of using
ERPs?
ERP has many advantages. It gives
valuable information about the ongoing
electrical activities of the brain
during the process of recognition
of an expression. It also specifies
whether the hemisphere difference
occurs in early stages or later ones
of stimulus processing. 20
36. What do you mean by neural plasticity?
Neural plasticity refers to the brain
changes needed for generating and
revising the information stored in
the brain. 27
37. What is the significance of neural
plasticity?
Neural plasticity is essential in
learning any kind of skill - whether
intellectual, emotional or motor in
nature. It acts as a base for perception,
learning, cognition and adaptive behavior
in general. 27
38. How can we reverse the effects
of damage to plasticity mechanisms
once they have been impaired?
27 Certain therapeutic drugs can
be used to improve the damaged mechanisms
Drugs can also be used in combination
with existing behaviorally-based interventions.
39. How does synaptic growth manifest
itself in an infant?
In infants, rapid synaptic growth
correlates with the rapid acquisition
of new skills. 27
40. Does the right half of the brain
have the same means of communication
as the left half?
The right and left halves of the
brain have different means of communication.
The left half of the brain can effectively
process spoken language whereas the
right half does not have the skills
to do so. In addition, the left half
of the brain cannot comprehend social
and emotional content while the right
half of the brain can. 57
41. What is Wernicke’s area?
Wernicke’s area is the part
of the cortex in the left temporal
lobe which controls the ability to
figure out and understand speech.
If there is damage to this area, the
ability to ‘understand’
words will be lost. 57
42. Which part of the brain is associated
with development of speech and language?
The angular gyrus of the inferior
parietal lobule is responsible for
development of speech and language.
57
43. How is the neocortical mantle
of the left part of the cerebrum associated
with language?
The neocortical mantle of left part
of cerebrum is involved in understanding
of grammatical, syntactical, and descriptive
components of language. It is also
responsible for ‘time sense’,
rhythm, verbal concept formation,
analytical reasoning, and verbal memory.
This part of the brain regulates many
features of expressive language functioning
such as reading, writing, speaking,
spelling and naming. 57
44. What constitutes the language
axis in the Brain?
The language axis consists of amygdala,
Wernicke's area, the inferior parietal
lobule, and Broca's area – all
of which function together to help
the person perceive and express the
contents of language and speech. 57
45. How are the components of language
axis connected?
The components of language axis,
namely amygdala, Wernicke's area,
the inferior parietal lobule, and
Broca's area are connected through
a bundle of axons,. 57
46. Is the language axis of the right
and left hemisphere interconnected?
Yes, the language axis of right and
left hemispheres is connected through
axonal fibers. 57
47. What is the function of corpus
callosum and anterior commissure?
Serving as an interconnection between
language axis of right and left hemispheres,
the corpus callosum and anterior commissure
help transfer information across the
hemispheres and help synchronize their
actions. 57
48. What is amygdala?
Amygdala is a structure embedded
deep in the temporal lobe, but is
linked well with all areas of temporal
lobe, including the neocortex and
fiber pathways which link Wernicke's
receptive speech area with Broca's
expressive speech area. 57
49. What is meant by isolation of
language axis?
Also called as isolation of speech
area, it is a condition in which all
of the neocortical tissue surrounding
the language axis is destroyed due
to lack of blood supply. In this case,
the language axis becomes totally
detached from the surrounding cortical
tissue. In spite of that it remains
an intact functional unit and all
of the experiences become a big gap.
57
50. What is the function of Broca’s
area?
Broca’s area is responsible
for final structuring of linguistic
information into speech. The information
is syntactically and grammatically
organized and later converted to speech.
57
51. How are neural connections related
to problem solving?
It is seen that strong pruning of
the neural connections result in the
development of an efficient brain.
Because this type of brain has fewer
synaptic connections, it results in
better problem solving abilities.
7
Working memory is a kind of short
term memory storage required for processing
bursts of thoughts. It is the collection
of structures and processes within
the brain used for momentarily storing
and manipulating information. Attention
and concentration is very crucial
in working memory as there is a mechanism
that directs specific information
to long-term memory. The stimuli or
information not attended to are subsequently
lost. 26
3. Define reaction timeas it applies to mental operations?
Reaction time is defined as the time
elapsed between a stimulus and the
response to it. More scientifically,
it is the time required to complete
given mental operations. It indicates
the speed of processing of information
with different stimulus materials
and situations. 26
4.How can one improve memory and recall of stored information?
A positive emotional environment aids the memory of a student. Hence a positive atmosphere must be encouraged while learning. It is better to connect learning to all kinds of senses to strengthen memory. Information is stored and may later be recalled if we find the information useful. Memory can also be improved if the concept we are learning has a strong beginning and end. Finally, everybody has different techniques working for them to enhance memory and recall. The recall technique of mnemonics is one such example 34
Note from Smart Neurons: Our products weave in visual representations and imagery, sound associated with pronunciation of words, music to keep the children’s brains alert and constantly changing situation contexts to create a rich platform for learning. All these things help strengthen memory of newly learned words and sentences.
5. What is the role of short-term
memory in learning?
The short-term memory of the brain
decides whether the information has
to be stored for long-term retrieval.
If the information is not processed
and sent to the next level of the
memory, it drops out and is forgotten.
However if it is linked to an already
existing larger system of information,
it is stored. 35
6. How is information from the short-term
memory stored in the long-term memory?
Any information being processed in
the short-term memory system can be
stored in the long-term memory through
35 :
· Repetition or rehearsal
of the same information
· Associating it with other
information
7. Can you add to the computational
reserves of your brain?
Yes, brain computational skills can
be added to and learning can be expanded.
It is seen that unfamiliar or new
areas of learning are taken up as
challenges by the brain. This in turn
stimulates dendrite growth and expansions
forming new connections. In other
words any new learning reconstructs
the brain. Hence, learning can be
expanded at any age. 35
8. Why do we forget certain information?
Information is stored if it has been
revised and applied in real life situations.
We tend to forget information that
is not useful to us in our practical
lives. Information that is used in
real life situations is found to be
elaborately encoded and stored in
our memory and can be retrieved when
required. This finding has important
connotations for enhancing the learning
experience – education must
be as practical as possible in order
for it to be retained. 33
9. When caught in an unfamiliar
situation, why do we fail to use information
or strategies that were already taught
to us previously?
Research studies reveal that many
neuronal connections and associated
systems are responsible for a single
cognitive function. These systems
work closely together but they are
also highly independent units. Hence
if the circumstances change, the neural
connections may fail to connect thereby
rendering previously learnt information
useless. 33
10. How can one improve memory and
recall of stored information?
A positive emotional environment
aids memory. Hence a positive atmosphere
must be encouraged while learning.
It is better to connect learning to
all kinds of senses to strengthen
memory. Information is stored and
may later be recalled if we find the
information useful. Memory can also
be improved if the concept we are
learning has a strong beginning and
end. Finally, everybody has different
techniques that work for them to enhance
their memory & recall functions.
The recall technique of mnemonics
is one such example. 34
13. What is the role of short-term
memory in learning?
The short-term memory of the brain
decides whether the information has
to be stored for long-term retrieval.
If the information is not processed
and sent to the next level, it drops
out and is forgotten. However if it
is linked to an already existing larger
system of information, then it is
stored for long-term retrieval. 35
14. How is information from the short-term
memory stored in the long-term memory?
Any information being processed in
the short-term memory system can be
stored in the long-term memory through 35 :
Repetition or rehearsal of the same
information
Associating it with other information
15. Can you add to the computational
reserves of your brain?
Yes, brain computational skills can
be added to and learning can be expanded.
It is seen that unfamiliar or new
areas of learning are taken up as
challenges by the brain. This in turn
stimulates dendritic growth and expansions
forming new connections. In other
words new skills can reconstruct-
the brain. Hence, learning can be
expanded at any age. 35
16. What are the age-dependent variables
that affect working memory development?
There are certain age-related variables
that decide the development of working
memory. These are 53
· Processing speed
· Storage time
· Strategic variations
· Variations in representational
format
17. According to the theory of memory,
what strengthens the development relationship
between phonological working memory
and verbal abilities?
Vocabulary knowledge is said to bridge
the gap between phonological working
memory and verbal abilities during
the developmental phase. 53
18. What is controlled processes
of information?
Information can be stored in the
brain and retrieved when required.
However, if the brain has some conditions
that specify the type of storage areas,
then storage and retrieval becomes
easy. In other words, the brain can
carry out a condition-specific search
and recall the information, instead
of going through all the information
in the memory. 23
19. Higher-ability individuals boast
of better storage and retrieval of
information. What is the reason behind
this?
Research studies propose that higher
ability individuals have controlled
processes of information rather than
automatic ones as in average performers.
The storage and retrieval is according
to the specifications provided, hence
an efficient system is in progress.
The search for information is specific
and constrained rather than a general
one. 23
20. Does the working memory capacity
have any role in better information
storage and retrieval?
Yes, the working memory capacity
is more effective in higher-ability
individuals. They have a larger working
memory capacity that allows connectivity
amongst various pieces of existing
information. The segregation of information
on the basis of specifications helps
in a better retrieval of information.
Searches are also more successful
when they are specific and to the
point. 23
21. How does the brain process information?
Any input to the brain in the form
of information is stored only if it
is relevant or connected. When we
get information input, the brain forms
an account or a ‘basis’
of that information. Also, the context
of the information is analyzed and
connected to information already stored
(from prior experience). Together,
these processes of account formation
and situation-related storage help
in accurate and rapid retrieval of
information. 23
22. Is well-structured information
easier to recall?
It is seen that well structured information
needs less processing in the brain
but retrieval of such information
requires effort. On the contrary,
information input with variation or
irregularity has to be processed more
and the situation context is better
developed. Hence this information
is easily retrieved and analyzed.
23
23. What is the figure-ground theory
of human learning?
According to a new school of thought,
the human brain process and system
evolved as a need to explain and take
a broad view of the survival related
problems perceived by us. According
to the theory, human intelligence
is a result of natural evolution of
human needs and not memory. 25
24. Why do some scientists reject
the long-term storage metaphor of
brain?
According to new theories, the brain
cannot have static areas of information
storage. This is because the microstructures
of the brain are always in flux. A
reason behind this is that the proteins
are rapidly broken down and new protein
structures are formed. Therefore,
the brain cannot have long-term storage
systems. 25
25. What are the memory structures
according to the information-processing
model?
According to the information-processing
model, the brain has three memory
stores:
· Sensory register
· Short-term memory
· Long-term memory
It is a dynamic system where an executive
regulates the input to each store
and the outcome of it. 25
26. How is information processed
in the subsystem and micro-systems
of the brain?
The subsystems and the micro-systems
of the brain process information in
co-ordination with each other.. The
ongoing brain activity of the subsystem
and the momentary constellation firing
of the micro-systems together form
a blueprint or design that has both
the components - static and changing.
This schema can be retrieved later.
25
27. What is the significance of two
concurrent brain activities in figure-ground
hypothesis?
The two concurrent brain activities,
namely ongoing brain activity (OBA)
and the momentary constellation firing
(MCF), are essential as per the figure-ground
hypothesis. The OBA maintains an ongoing
stable and constant base of knowledge
and the MCF takes care of the figures
changing with respect to the ongoing
base. The OBA is concerned with the
internal ground of the brain whereas
the MCF looks after any deviation
from this. 25
28. How does the interaction between
ongoing brain activity and momentary
constellation firing help in perception?
Ongoing brain activity creates thematic
knowledge, which serves as a background
to distinguish categorical knowledge
that is created by the momentary constellation
firing. Both should be different in
order to be detectable. Categorical
knowledge could only stand out in
the context of thematic knowledge.
25
29. What are the sources of self-regulation
in a bio-functional model of the brain?
In a bio-functional model of the
brain, there are three sources of
self-regulation. 25 These are:
· External or stimulus regulation.
· Dynamic or subsystem regulation.
· Active or executive regulation.
30. How is short-term memory and
long-term memory explained in terms
of the bio-functional model?
According to the bio-functional model,
short-term memory is more or less
like the momentary constellation firing.
It is short lived and forgotten once
it has completed its job. It can be
stored for a longer time if it is
made an ongoing process by the ongoing
brain activity with techniques like
rehearsal and mnemonics. Hence the
interaction between the ongoing brain
activity and the momentary constellation
firing decides the life span of information
in the memory. 25
31. Why do students forget what they
are taught?
Our ability to re-create the memory
and recombine all or most of the elements
(which are stored in millions of neurons)
depends on the strength of the original
experience, including the emotional
load. One reason why students forget
what they are taught is because the
information served no useful purpose
in their lives and was devoid of emotional
impact. This type of information is
not elaborately encoded in the brain
and hence easily forgotten. 33
32. How is memory stored in our brain
according to recent scientific evidence?
Recent evidence suggests that we
do not store memories whole and therefore
do not retrieve them that way either.
When we remember something, we actually
reconstruct it by combining elements
of the original experience. Although
we have the illusion that everything
comes together in a single anatomical
theater, recent evidence suggests
that it does not. Probably the relative
simultaneity of activity at different
sites binds the separate parts of
the mind together 29.
33. How can we enrich the environment
to optimize learning?
We can adopt following strategies
to optimize learning:
· Establish a positive atmosphere.
Pay attention to the physical and
visual aspects of the classroom as
well as the auditory and emotional
atmosphere in the room. Keep the environment
positive, remembering that students
learn not only content but also context.
· Use upbeat music for transition
times, and use classical or instrumental
music for group work, testing, and
other "quiet time" work.
Research on music and learning has
shown that music that plays at or
near 60 beats per minute improves
learning and memory, actually slowing
down brain waves and increasing optimum
functioning.
· Use positive visual reminders.
· Create an interactive environment.
The brain learns best with active
rather than passive learning (doing
vs. absorbing) 34.
34. How can we gain and sustain learners’ attention?
Following simple ways can be adapted
to gain and sustain a learners’
attention:
· Integrate novel or strong
emotional connections to learning.
· Use laughter. Appropriate
humor and jokes can help lower stress
and create a fun and relaxed atmosphere.
· Allow movement. Integrating
movement into learning activities
increases circulation and oxygen flow
to the brain, which in turn can increase
student attention. Plan your class
activities so that movement is built
in.
· Be aware of external and
internal attention 34.
35. What are the ways to increase
memory and recall in students?
In brain-based learning and teaching,
to the ways to increase memory and
recall are:
· Recognize the importance
of emotion.
· Create sensory associations.
· Integrating sensory associations
into teaching and learning will greatly
facilitate memory and recall.
· Make learning personally
relevant to students.
· Use creative repetition.
· Remember the importance
of first and last. Therefore, it is
important to create powerful beginnings
and endings in teaching and learning.
· Teach specific recall techniques.
Mnemonics, associations, linking information,
and creating personal recall techniques
can all help improve memory and recall.
34
36. What role does short-term memory
play in learning?
The short-term memory (STM) plays
an important role in learning. On
stimulation, the sensory system passes
the stimulus to the STM system. The
STM determines the value of this stimulus
learning for later on. If it considers
that a stimulus is important, it encodes
it in long-term memory system (LTM).
Otherwise, it permits the information
to drop out of the system. 35.
37. How is a stimulus encoded in
long-term memory system?
A stimulus is encoded in LTM system
in two ways: (1) through rehearsal
or repetition, or (2) through associations
or relations amongst various pieces
of information. When the LTM system
receives new information, the brain's
structure is changed – it becomes
reconstructed. New associations are
formed, and learning is expanded.
Teachers must face this awesome truth:
Presenting new information to students,
with the student's intent to learn,
changes the structure of the human
physiology of the brain. The student's
brain will never again be the same
35.
38. How can a person strengthen his
mind?
According to Dr. Scheibel, head of
UCLA's Brain Research Institute, one
should be actively involved in areas
unfamiliar to him to make the dendrites
grow and strengthen the mind. He further
states, “Anything that is intellectually
challenging can probably serve as
a kind of stimulus for dendritic growth,
which means it adds to the computational
reserves in your brain.” The
best way for children and adolescents
to increase their dendrites and expand
their learning is to meet and be challenged
by an intelligent, interesting, enthusiastic
teacher and stimulated peers35.
39. Do short-term and long-term memories
work independently or in parallel?
Short-term and long-term memories
work in series. The short-term memory
comes into play when an input is received.
It is extremely unstable and if not
strengthened through rehearsal and
attention, the memory is eventually
lost. Through rehearsal and paying
attention, short-term memory leads
to long-term memory which is more
stable and permanent. 56
40. How is thinking related to memory?
Thinking is thought to be the process
of interrelating symbols within working
memory (or short-term memory) as well
as between long-term and working memory.
47
1. Is learning affected by the way children bond to their near and dear ones?
Yes, bonding influences the way a child learns. Bonding promotes healthy connections and interactions and children view the world as a positive place to be in. These ways in which children bond to each other help them develop problem-solving skills 36
Note from Smart Neurons: Most researchers believe that one of the best things a parent can offer a child is a loving and positive environment. If this is not available, then no matter what tools, games and gadgets you expose them to – the child’s overall development will not progress successfully.
2. What is the role of pro-social learning in development of emotionally healthy adults?
Pro-social learning helps the child develop an attitude of caring and acceptance of varied perspectives. Pro-social activities encourage the child to practice the ways of caring that he has learnt from his environment. Also, it provides him an opportunity to analyze the result of it. This helps him build healthy relationships 36.
3. What is the role of families and communities in creating a caring atmosphere for childhood education?
Family members are immediate teachers of the child and hence they should provide a supportive and caring atmosphere for the child. Educational institutions should be supportive and caring to the children as well as their families. Communities can contribute in this by providing opportunities and infrastructure for the same 36
4.What is the role of parents and caregivers in the brain development of a preschool child?
Caregivers and parents are the significant mediums to provide necessary stimulation for brain development in preschool children. Activities like talking, singing, playing and reading to a child help develop a healthier brain. Parents can also provide a reduced-stress environment which will provide a fertile field for exploration and experimentation which are important factors that govern brain growth. 15
Note from Smart Neurons:
One of the most important things a
parent can do for a child is to sing,
play and read to them. Parents can
use our Software CDs and DVD to help
them with this process – however,
we do strongly encourage parents to
be involved when the children are
using our products. This will not
only strengthen the child’s
learning but also will provide opportunities
for the child to bond with the parent.
5. Does brain development occur throughout life?
Some forms of brain development occur throughout life. These are:
· Experience-expectant development
· Experience-dependent development 15
6. What is meant by experience-expectant development?
Experience-expectant development of brain is through the human experiences that the brain expects for its balanced development. These experiences are provided by the parents and caregivers during early childhood. The research shows that love and security provided by parents is necessary for the normal growth of a child’s brain. 15
7. What is meant by experience-dependent
development of brain?
Experience-dependent development
of brain occurs due to the day to
day experience and is unique to each
individual. Structure-wise, each brain
is different due to the different
types of stimulations they experience.
For example, the region of abstract
thinking is more developed in a writer
due to the frequent use of that area.
15
8. Can the learning ability of the brain be affected by external environment?
External environment has a direct effect on the learning activities of the brain. Adults display the skills that are learnt from birth onwards. All the activities in the external environment are grasped, filtered and selective information is imbibed by the brain that constitutes the basic learning function of the brain. 5
9. Does writing behavior need to be modeled in children?
Adults should model writing behavior in children. This helps them to learn the right grip on the pen or pencil. Children learn the appropriate grip by watching the adults handle the pencil or pen 37 ).
10. How can adults promote literacy in young children?
Adults can promote literacy in children by providing a non-threatening environment that provides opportunities for non-conventional ways of learning, for example play. Adults are role models for children; therefore adults should represent model behavior 37
11. What are the elements
of family ecology that affect learning?
There are three elements
of family ecology that affect learning
in children 36 These
are:
· Attachment relations - these are the relations which a child has with the adults directly caring for him. These relations provide a sense of security to him.
· Adult role models - Adults serve as role models to the child in teaching him how to love a and care for others
· Opportunities for pro-social learning - the adults should provide an environment that helps the child exhibit his capacity to care and reflect the response to it.
12. What could be done to
increase a child’s receptiveness?
Constant prompting by the adult facilitates
the child's construction of schemas
and cognitive development and is one
of the best methods to nurture a child’s
receptiveness. The exploration of
fields outside education proves to
be highly beneficial. 42
13.What should parents do
to enhance a child’s development?
A child’s development very
much depends upon his interest in
things, just as it is with a young
man choosing his career. A very important
factor is identification of giftedness.
Every child has some inherent talent
and that is what parents should explaore
and develop. 43
14. Does parental habit affect
the child?
Evidence from research shows that
habits like alcoholism and smoking
have a negative effect on a Childs’
development as the child tends to
take up those habits, and conversely,
an enriched environment can preserve
a greater number of cells in the aging
brain memory. Therefore habits parents
have both prior to and after the child’s
birth have an immense effect on the
child. 44
15. Is early intervention
in a child’s learning helpful?
There is ample research evidence
showing that interventions during
the preschool years often result in
positive outcomes with regards to
the learning process (especially in
the case of gifted children). Also
in successive years the environment
around a child should be information-rich,
with access to books, CD-ROM computer
information, an informative video
library, and adults to help access
information and answer questions,
and suggest new directions for intellectual
stimulation. 5
16. What is experience- expectant
brain development?
In experience-expectant brain development,
early experiences provide essential
catalysts for normal brain development.
Without these essential experiences,
brain growth goes awry. The developing
brain "expects" and requires
these typical human experiences, and
relies on them as a component of its
growth 15.
17. What is experience-dependant
brain development?
In experience-dependant brain development,
individual experience fosters new
brain growth and refines existing
brain structures. These experiences
can be unique to an individual. For
instance, the brain of a musician
who plays a stringed instrument differs
from the brain of a poet who works
with words and abstract ideas because
they have exercised different brain
regions throughout their lives. These
experiences influence neural connections
uniquely in different individuals,
as they account for new learning and
skills. This form of brain development
occurs all through life 15
18. How do parents and other
caregivers contribute to healthy brain
development?
Parents and other caregivers contribute
to healthy brain development by talking,
singing, playing, and reading to a
child. These activities are valuable,
especially if they are developmentally
appropriate and are attuned to a young
child's interests. But more significant
contributions occur when parents obtain
prenatal and postnatal health care;
protect children from environmental
hazards, dangerous drugs, and viruses;
secure appropriate immunizations,
and early vision and auditory screenings;
and prevent accidents. The continuing
efforts of parents to keep stress
manageable and environments safe for
secure exploration offer significant
protections to the development of
healthy brains and minds 15.
19. What is the importance
of relationships in early brain development?
Relationships provide the nurturing
that strengthens children's security
and well-being, offer the cognitive
challenges to exercise young minds,
impart many essential catalysts to
healthy brain growth, and help young
children discover who they are and
what they can do 15.
20. How does society benefit
from early childhood development programs?
In terms of benefits to the society,
early childhood interventions increase
the individuals’ productivity
as the child matures. Early childhood
investments can reduce the costs and
improve the efficiency of primary
schooling. Children, who are well
prepared - physically, mentally and
socially - have an easier transition
from home to school. As a result,
dropout and repetition rates are lower,
reducing the need for remedial programs,
thus cutting the overall costs of
education. Investments in early childhood
development have been shown to modify
inequalities rooted in poverty and
social discrimination by giving children
from disadvantaged backgrounds a fair
start in school and in life 55.
21. Which group based care
and education programs are incorporated
in early childhood development (ECCD)
programs?
Crèches, home daycare, formal
and non-formal preschools, play groups,
kindergartens, and childcare centers
in the workplace are some of the group-based
care and education programs incorporated
in ECCD programs 55.
22.What elements of family
ecology affect the learning of children?
Three "family ecology" elements
affect the learning of children:
· attachment relations,
· adult role models, and
· opportunities for pro-social
learning.
Attachment relations are those relationships
children have that convey the rich
meaning of being loved by a caring
adult over a continuing period of
time. Adult role models provide children
with visible schemas on how to love.
If adults are kind to each other,
then their children will imitate this
way of relating to others. Bonding
engages children in healthy connections
to their parents and family in ways
that help them visualize the world
around them as a positive and good
place. Positive bonding is known to
enhance children's problem-solving
skills 36.
23.How is family violence
detrimental to children?
Family violence not only impedes children's
development of caring, but might also
nurture in children antisocial ways
of living. In addition, evidence indicates
that exposure to chronic violence
alters the structure of children's
brains in ways that make children
more impulsive and antisocial 36.
24.What strategies can early
childhood professionals use to support
family caring?
Early childhood professionals can
use five means to support family caring:
· ‘Model’ caring
behavior in their relations with families
· Offer parent education on
myriad ways to promote caring
· Provide families with opportunities
to practice caring
· Validate parental involvement
in family caring rituals
· Engage families in doing
assessments to develop a basis for
strengthening their caring relations
36.
25.What are the important
points in early childhood development?
Building learning environments and
human relationships that nurture peace
and caring in children should be our
main focus in early childhood. Three
important reminders are in order:
· Parents need to be supported
in their role as children's most important
teachers;
· Teachers and schools need
to provide safe, nurturing, and supportive
environments for children and families;
· Communities must foster
the caring process through various
supports, such as quality childcare
and providing more caring places for
families (13).
Research studies show that creative
thoughts flow easily if the person
is in positive mood. This implies
that mutual respect, cooperation,
support, value of curiosity and freedom
to think independently are important
prerequisites of creative thinking.
10
2. What is emotional competence?
Emotional competence is the capability
to yield a better performance through
a balanced emotional behavior that
encompasses self-awareness, motivation,
self-regulation, empathy, and adeptness
in relationships. It indicates the
maximum utilization of the potentials
in work performance. 12
3. What is the role of emotional
intelligence in learning?
Emotional intelligence is important
in providing a constructive environment
for learning. It consists of interpersonal
and intrapersonal intelligence. Interpersonal
intelligence decides how a student
interrelates between things or to
others. It helps him understand others’
behavior and adjust accordingly. Intrapersonal
intelligence aids the student in understanding
his own behavior and intuition. On
the whole, emotional intelligence
helps create a positive environment
for learning. 12
4. Can emotional competency
lead to a higher quality of life?
Yes, emotional competency renders
a higher quality of life by making
the learner self-determined and by
increasing his self awareness. Hence
it is recommended that educational
institutions inculcate behavioral
literacy that helps the students understand
their weaknesses and strengths as
well as their learning styles and
aptitude areas. 12
5. What is the role of facial
expression in communication?
Emotions without facial expression
are incomplete and do not convey the
whole emotion. Facial expressions
indicate the type of emotion a person
is undergoing and serves as one of
the ways to express the person’s
feelings. 20
6. Can a baby differentiate between
emotions expressed through facial
expressions?
Yes, infants start differentiating
between the facial expressions from
the age of three-months. They can
make out the difference between a
sad face and a happy face. 20
7. Which part of the brain
is responsible for visual perceptual
analysis of faces?
Posterior regions of right hemispheres
are responsible for visual perceptual
analysis of faces. 20
8. At what age do babies
start understanding the referential
nature of looking?
By 18 months of age, babies start
developing an idea about the cause
and effect of looking. 21
9. Do emotions have any role
in learning?
Emotions have a strong influence
on learning abilities. Positive emotions
improve memory and enhance learning.
This advocates the need for a supportive
and caring environment. On the contrary,
negative emotions are detrimental
to learning. 32
10. Emotions drive learning. Is there
a scientific reason behind the notion?
Emotions have great impact on learning
behavior because the neural fibers
emerging from the emotion center (the
part of brain controlling emotions)
to the logical or reasoning centre
are more than the vice versa. This
implies that to a great extent, the
behavior is an expression of emotions
and not logic.32
11. How can we use emotional
impact in a classroom setting to enhance
learning?
Positive environment in classrooms
promote learning. It is a common finding
that school environments that are
stressful hamper learning. In a classroom
set up, the teacher should be caring
and supportive, as this releases chemicals
that improve memory and in turn learning.
It is a well-known fact that students
are academically strong in subjects
where they find the teacher is warm
and approachable.32
12. How can the expressions
parents’ wear on their face
manipulate a child’s learning?
The primary learning of a child is
mainly through the way of expression.
An infant has no other skill but his
vision to interpret his parents’
gestures. So, what parents show their
children forms the base of learning
for a child. Twelve-month-old infants
will cross a visual cliff when their
mothers pose a happy or interested
expression but not when their mothers
pose a fearful or angry expression.
Therefore, expressive changes must
be carefully brought about to give
the child the best of primary learning.
20
13. Are gestures important?
A child with no knowledge of language
communicates through gestures only.
Not only that, a gesture when considered
in relation to the speech it accompanies
can predict how the speaker is going
to solve a problem. Even otherwise,
gestures can focus on entirely different
aspects of the situation other than
speech. 8
14. What functions does the
amygdala play in emotions?
The amygdala is the linchpin of our
emotional brain. It reads the emotions
of others and activates our own, preparing
us for flight, fight, or approach
behaviour. 54
15. What is the importance
of emotion in learning?
Emotions drive attention and in turn,
drive learning and memory. Since more
neural fibers project from the brain's
emotional center into the logical/rational
center than the reverse, emotion tends
to determine behavior more powerfully
than rational processes. Stressful
school environments inhibit learning
while positive classroom atmospheres
encourage chemical responses in students
that help them learn. Therefore, integrating
emotional expression in a caring classroom
atmosphere improves memory and stimulates
the brain to learn 32.
16. What are the activities
of the infant which indicate that
they have acquired intentional understanding
of the face?
The activities of the infant which
indicate that they have acquired intentional
understanding are 21:
· The child pursues direction
of the other person’s gaze towards
the targets (even when the target
is not in their immediate visual field)
· The child points to or shows
external objects to others
· He uses the emotional reactions
of others towards fixated objects
and directs his own behavior toward
these objects
17. What is joint visual
attention?
The process of following the direction
of the other person’s gaze is
called the joint visual attention.
This is found mostly in infants who
want to see what others are seeing.
21
18. Do infants give attention
to the eye gaze along with adult head
turn?
Infants do not give attention to
eye gaze and are directed only by
the adult head turn. This happens
until 18 months of age. 21
19. What is emotional intelligence?
Emotional intelligence is the capability
to recognize emotions, to receive
inputs and create emotions so as to
support thought, to understand emotions
and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively
regulate emotions so as to promote
emotional and intellectual growth.
10
Reading disability is a kind of learning
disability in which reading achievement
is less than what is expected of the
age or the grade level. Children with
reading disability usually present
with problem in cognition and are
below average achievers academically.
19
2. Is a reading disability
harmful for a child?
Reading disability poses more of
a psychological problem to the student.
It is defined as a discrepancy between
intellectual capacity and academic
achievement. Reading disabilities
do have a negative effect on learning.
One way to overcome this is to bridge
the gap between intellect and achievement.
Children with reading disability can
develop and implement efficient strategies
in response to novel tasks. 45
3. How can you measure reading
disability?
Reading disability can be measured
by assessing the difference between
abilities and intelligence. Abilities
are statistically measured in the
areas of reading, writing, and mathematics.
Intelligence is usually measured by
psychometric methods. 45
4. What are the possible causes of
reading disability?
Reading disability can be caused
by a number of factors, some of which
are listed below: 45
· impairment of specific cognitive
processes
· neurological inefficiency
· emotional disturbance
· environmental factors
5. How does reading disability affect
strategic planning?
Reading disability delays the development
of strategic planning skills. Children
with reading disability take more
time to develop and master information
processing skills hence making problem
solving difficult. This delay is found
more in younger children than in the
older children.. 45
6. Why does development of information
processing skills get delayed in children
with reading disability?
One possible reason behind the developmental
delay of information processing skills
in children with reading disability
is the immaturity of myelination in
the central nervous system. Because
of delayed and insufficient myelination,
development of strategic planning
skills could sometimes take more time
to develop. 45
7. What is global aphasia? Is it
the same as isolation of language
axis?
Global aphasia is caused by complete
destruction of language areas thereby
destroying the ability for comprehension,
speech output, reading, writing, and
virtually all aspects and functions
related to language.. 57
8. What does ‘confabulation’ signify?
Confabulation is a believable but
imagined memory that sometimes fills
in the gaps of what is not remembered.
This could also result due to brain
injury. 57
9. What is the organic cause of confabulation?
Usually, language area receives input
from the neocortical area to perceive,
analyze and generate appropriate verbal
responses. In case of damage to neocortical
area, no inputs are received and the
language axis depends on other sources
of inputs that are erroneous. These
inputs are expressed in the form of
confabulation.. 57
10. What is tangentiality?
Tangentiality is the act of replying
to a question in an indirect or irrelevant
way. It is related to hastiness caused
by flooding of the language axis with
closely related, although illogical
associations. These associations are
then processed and expressed. This
happens when the person becomes very
impulsive and says whatever pops into
his or her mind. 57
11. What happens if Broca’s
area is damaged?
In case of damage to Broca’s
area, there is exclusion and lapse
of relational words. In this condition,
words that tie a language together,
(e.g. prepositions, modifiers, articles,
and conjunctions) are not processed.
57
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Michael Salin
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Differences in Brain Activity Related
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Understanding of the Referential Nature
of Looking by Samantha C. Butler,
Albert J. Caron, and Rechele Brooks
22. Excerpt from the book Luria's
Theory of Brain Functioning: A Model
for Research in Cognitive Psychophysiology
by Marlin L. Languis
23. Excerpt from the book Who Reasons
Well? Two Studies of Informal Reasoning
Among Children of Different Grade,
Ability, and Knowledge Levels by Mary
L. Means and James F. Voss
24. Journal article by Erno Lehtinen,
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Olkinuora, and Riitta Kinnunen - Long-Term
Development of Learning Activity:
Motivational, Cognitive, and Social
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